Abstract

In the hospitality sector, training and development are considered important factors associated with employee performance, yet the relationships underlying this association remain poorly understood, especially in developing countries. This study investigated the mediating role of employee motivation in the relationship between training and development and employee performance in the hotel industry in Takoradi Metropolis, Ghana. The study employed an explanatory quantitative research design grounded in Human Capital Theory and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory. We collected data from 296 employees across ten registered one- to four-star hotels using a structured questionnaire and used Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling to test the hypothesised relationships. Training and development were significantly and positively associated with both employee motivation (β = 0.627, p < 0.001) and employee performance (β = 0.438, p < 0.001). Additionally, employee motivation was significantly and positively associated with employee performance (β = 0.377, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the results indicated a significant indirect association between training and development and employee performance through motivation (β = 0.237, p < 0.001), alongside a significant direct association. The model explained 39.3% of the variance in motivation and 54.1% of the variance in employee performance. These findings provide empirical evidence from Ghana’s hospitality sector and underscore the importance of integrating motivational strategies into employee development programs. The findings suggest that integrating structured training with intentional motivational strategies may support positive employee performance and service-quality outcomes.

Keywords

Training and Development, Employee Motivation, Employee Performance, Hospitality Industry, Mediation Analysis, PLS-SEM

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1. Introduction

The hospitality sector contributes substantially to the Ghanaian economy and plays a crucial role in tourism development, job creation, and revenue generation (Agbenyegah & Neequaye, 2024). The sector’s economic value to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was estimated at around GHS 4.3 billion in 2024 (Statista Research Department, 2025). In this context, the Takoradi Metropolis serves as a prominent centre of hospitality and tourism, making it a suitable setting for discussing workforce-related issues in the sector (Arthur, 2025). Despite its significance, Ghana’s hospitality sector continues to struggle with several issues, including poor employee performance, service delivery problems, and high staff turnover (Mensah et al., 2023; Baum, 2015). These challenges have been linked, in part, to inadequate or poorly designed training and development initiatives that may not adequately equip employees with the skills needed to meet changing industry demands (Opoku et al., 2017; Senya et al., 2025). Owing to the dynamic, competitive, and service-oriented nature of the hospitality sector, staff members are required to constantly adapt to the changing expectations of guests, technological advancements, as well as evolving service standards. This puts organisations under increasing pressure to invest in employee learning and development programs, not only to maintain service quality and improve workforce skills, but also to retain a competitive advantage in tight markets (Bharwani & Mathews, 2021). The connection between training and development and employee performance is grounded in Human Capital Theory, which posits that investments in employees’ knowledge, skills, and competencies lead to increased productivity and organisational performance.

Organisations that invest in human capital development are more likely to report better performance alongside a more capable and productive workforce. In the hospitality industry, training and development programs are not just operational tasks but strategic investments aimed at fostering employee efficiency and the organisation’s long-term success. In addition to training and development, employee motivation is a significant factor in workplace behaviour and performance. It involves the internal and external factors that influence an individual’s desire to contribute effort towards an organization’s goals. In service-oriented organisations, committed employees are more likely to remain productive and provide outstanding service. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory also emphasises the role of motivation by identifying hygiene factors and motivators as influences on employee satisfaction and performance. The framework is especially applicable in the hospitality setting, where workers are constantly subjected to rigorous service expectations and challenging, sometimes stressful, job environments. Some studies have shown that the association between training and development and employee performance may vary with employee motivation (Hasyim & Bakri, 2024; Fahriana, 2022). However, others have indicated that motivation plays a limited role in the training and development-performance relationship (Wijayanto & Riani, 2021; Silva & Gonçalves, 2025). These varied results suggest a strong need to further explore the role of employee motivation in this association. The theoretical basis for this study is a combination of Human Capital Theory and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory.

Although many studies have examined the relationship between training and development on employee performance, the relationships underlying this association remain poorly understood. Literature from countries such as Indonesia, Vietnam, and South Africa has begun to examine how situational factors may play mediating roles in the relationship between training and performance. Empirical evidence in this context has been limited in Ghana’s hospitality service sector, specifically among hotel staff in the Takoradi Metropolis. This creates uncertainty about whether employee motivation plays an important role in the association between training and development and employee performance. This gap is significant because it extends learning beyond training and development and provides insight into the relationships underlying employee development programs and workplace outcomes. Therefore, the study focuses on the role of employee motivation as a mediating variable in the relationship between training and development and employee performance in the Takoradi Metropolis. Specifically, the study examines the direct association between training and development and employee performance and the indirect association through employee motivation. The results are expected to provide evidence to inform the development of human resource policies and training programs aimed at supporting workforce efficiency, service quality, and organizational competitiveness in the Ghanaian hospitality industry.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Training and Development and Employee Performance

Training and development continues to be a key focus in the hospitality and tourism sector. It is designed to ensure that employees are fully equipped for their current and future roles within an organization. As Armstrong (2021) illustrates, ongoing, well-organised training programs are essential for providing workers with the information and skills they need to perform their duties effectively. This paper discusses training and development in the context of Human Capital Theory. It frames human attributes in terms of knowledge, skills, and competencies as capital resources that can be developed through intentional investment. From the perspective of Human Capital Theory, training, education, and other developmental expenditures are viewed as investments that can enhance employee productive capacity and organisational performance (Becker, 1993). Human Capital Theory is an appropriate theory for this study because it provides a theoretical explanation for the relationship between investments in employee knowledge and skills and performance outcomes. It contrasts with theories of motivation, which focus on psychological processes, by emphasizing the theoretical relationship between skill acquisition and productivity, thereby providing a relevant foundation for examining the association between training and employee performance. There is a strong body of evidence indicating a positive association between training and development and employee performance. Previous research shows that employees who participate in training and development programs are more productive, more confident, have greater skills, and are generally more satisfied at work (Otoo & Mishra, 2018; Singh & Ansari, 2024; Burhan Ismael et al., 2021; Hamid et al., 2023).

However, the success of training seems to rely crucially on its design and mode of delivery. Structured and ongoing training programs, for example, have been associated with more sustained performance outcomes than single training interventions. At the same time, not all training programs are associated with positive performance outcomes. Generic or insufficiently focused interventions may not yield significant performance gains, whereas job-specific or role-oriented training programs may show stronger positive association with task performance (Barreto & Mayya, 2023). The training type is also significant: on-the-job training is often reported to have a stronger association with performance, potentially because of its practical and experiential nature, whereas off-the-job training generally shows a weaker association with performance. Nevertheless, findings on digital and online training are also less consistent. While some research indicates a limited direct association, other research suggests that digital tools, such as e-learning platforms and virtual simulations, have shown increasingly positive associations with training outcomes (Kumar et al., 2025). These discrepancies indicate that the outcomes associated with digital training approaches might depend on other factors such as technological infrastructure, employee readiness, and training design.

Other studies in the hospitality sector suggest that training, resulting from external interventions such as government-sponsored programs, may be positively associated with performance. However, their effectiveness is frequently limited by factors such as poor planning, limited awareness, and ineffective strategy implementation. Importantly, recent studies also debunk the notion of a simple linear relationship between training and performance. The relationship between training and employee performance may also vary according to, or operate alongside, other organizational factors, such as the work environment, reward systems, and managerial support. This indicates that training and development alone might not be sufficient to ensure optimal performance without a favourable organisational environment. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 1: Training and Development is positively associated with employee performance.

2.2. Training and Development on Motivation

Employee motivation is a central theme in organisational behaviour, influencing productivity, job performance, and organisational effectiveness (Senya et al., 2025). This study focuses on motivation from the perspective of Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, which offers a deeper understanding of the factors that influence employee attitudes and behaviours in the workplace. Herzberg (2003) identifies two distinct aspects of job experience: satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Most importantly, these are not mutually exclusive; a lack of dissatisfaction does not mean satisfaction, and vice versa (Acquah et al., 2021). In this approach, job satisfaction results from motivator (intrinsic) factors, such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, nature of the job, advancement, and opportunities for personal growth. Job dissatisfaction, on the other hand, is related to hygiene (extrinsic) factors like working conditions, interpersonal relationships, organisational policies, quality of supervision, and remuneration. The distinction in Herzberg’s approach is supported quite generally by empirical evidence; intrinsic factors are found to be the main motivators of job satisfaction and extrinsic factors appear to be largely negative in motivating employees, but are more likely to prevent dissatisfaction (Mitsakis & Galanakis, 2022; Ann & Blum, 2020). This relationship, however, is not generally consistent.

Valk & Yousif (2023) found that at lower levels of roles, factors intrinsic to the work itself can actually serve as sources of dissatisfaction when there is a lack of opportunities for development and recognition, or when opportunities are not equitably distributed—implying that the power of motivators can depend on the organisation’s context and perceptions of fairness. Herzberg’s theory is more differentiated from traditional motivation theories (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Alderfer’s ERG Theory, McClelland’s Theory of Needs), which generally assume that when needs are satisfied, motivation increases and, subsequently, satisfaction is achieved. The theory makes it possible to identify the factors that lead to satisfaction from the factors that lead to dissatisfaction. This helps explain why changes in working conditions are not always associated with improvements in motivation or performance. It is also of particular relevance to training and development because it emphasises that training and development should not only be aligned with the organisation’s basic working conditions but also be designed to promote relevant work, recognition, and opportunities for advancement. There is a growing body of studies indicating a positive association between training and development and employee motivation. Empirical research suggests that effective training programs are positively associated with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as well as employee engagement, productivity, and overall performance (Waqanimaravu & Arasanmi, 2020; Hasyim & Bakri, 2024; Khuong et al., 2020). Specifically, training programs that align with employees’ work, career goals, and training needs tend to show stronger positive associations with employee motivation. The association between training and development and motivation is not necessarily consistent across contexts; however, there are context-dependent relationships between the two. Examples include cultural differences in motivational reactions. Han et al. (2023) found in their research on the hospitality industry in Vietnam that younger workers with shorter service tenures were more likely to be influenced by the organisational culture and external factors (extrinsic motivation) than by internal factors (intrinsic motivation). Although training and development are generally correlated with motivation, some studies provide conflicting results. For instance, Silva and Gonçalves (2025) reported a stronger association between financial incentives and employee motivation than between training and development and motivation. This indicates that, in addition to motivational benefits, the relationship between training and development and motivation may also vary according to conditions such as rewards, compensation, and organisational support. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 2: Training and Development is positively associated with employee motivation.

2.3. Motivation and Employee Performance

Employee motivation and job satisfaction are well-known key factors in individual and team performance. Motivated and satisfied employees are more likely to perform well in team environments, fostering better cooperation, communication, and collaboration. These behaviours are associated with greater team cohesion, improved morale, and increased organisational commitment, resulting in a more supportive and productive workplace (Talukder & Kumar, 2024; Agus Triansyah et al., 2023). Research shows a consistent link between motivation and employee performance. Intrinsic motivation (including job satisfaction) and extrinsic motivation (including external rewards and working conditions) were found to have significant positive associations with employee performance; with stronger relationships reported when both were considered together (Fahriana, 2022). Similarly, Hemakumara (2020) argued that intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors are jointly associated with performance outcomes across industries and countries, thereby underscoring the importance of the relationship between motivation and workplace behaviour. The relationship between motivation and performance, however, is not uniform across all dimensions of motivation.

Given the generally positive association between work motivation and performance, Chien et al. (2020) found that financial motivation is the most potent source of motivation, followed by internal self-concept and goal internalisation. Enjoyment of work and external self-concept were identified as less strongly associated with performance. This implies that the relative importance of motivational factors can differ greatly from one organisation to another and from one employee to another. Tahiri et al. (2022) also reported a strong positive correlation between motivation and employee performance, accounting for a significant percentage of the variance in performance (92.9%). In this context, the most important motivational factors were identified as salary, opportunities for advancement, and working conditions, with comparatively less influential motivational factors being awards and job design. These findings suggest that in situations where financial rewards are especially valued, extrinsic rewards are important. Although the relationship between motivation and performance is highly positive, some evidence suggests it may not be sufficient to achieve optimal results. Wijayanto and Riani (2021) argued that competency and motivation are required qualities for effective performance. Employees need the necessary skills and the desire to perform. Motivation is associated with employee effort and engagement, while competency is also associated with performance outcomes. These findings suggest the potential value of considering both training and motivational approaches when seeking to support employee performance. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 3: Employee motivation is significantly and positively associated with employee performance.

2.4. Mediating Role of Motivation in the Relationship between Training and Development and Employee Performance

Motivation has been examined as an important mediating variable in relationships between organisational factors and employee performance. Wardhana and Harsono (2024) reported a positive relationship between self-efficacy and motivation, with motivation playing a mediating role in the self-efficacy-performance relationship. Similarly, Alam et al. (2020) reported positive relationships among wages, welfare facilities, employee productivity, and motivation. Furthermore, Al Banin et al. (2020) found a positive relationship among leadership, organisational support, and employee performance, with motivation mediating the relationship. Collectively, these results highlight the potential mediating role of motivation in the relationships between organisational factors and employee performance. Despite this vast amount of research, the relationship between training and development and employee performance through motivation has not been fully explored in some geographic and sectoral cases. There is evidence that motivation has a meaningful mediating role in the relationship between training initiatives and work performance, as mentioned by Niati et al. (2021). However, contrasting results have also been reported: Putranto et al. (2023) reported a significant positive relationship between training and employee performance, but found that motivation did not play a significant mediating role. These inconsistent findings emphasise the need for additional empirical research to clarify the role of motivation in the training-and-development-performance link. The purpose of this study is therefore to bridge this gap by investigating the mediating role of employee motivation in the relationship between training and development and employee performance in the Takoradi Metropolis, with a view to providing context-specific information and clarifying the conflicting findings from previous studies. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 4: Employee motivation plays a significant mediating role in the association between training and development and employee performance.

The conceptual framework is as follows:

Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the study, which includes the proposed relationships between training and development, employee motivation and employee performance with the mediating role of employee motivation.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework.

3. Methods

3.1. Research Design

The research design was an explanatory research with a quantitative research approach aimed to explain the relationship between training and development, employee motivation and employee performance in the hotel industry. Its purpose was to statistically analyse the primary data collected using structured questionnaires and test the hypothesised relationships among these variables. The study was conducted in Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis, the capital of the Western Region of Ghana. The area is a significant commercial and administrative centre with a developing service economy supported by port operations and the development of oil and gas (Fiave, 2017). The hospitality industry in the metropolis comprises both locally owned and branded hotels from one-to-four star ratings. This setting is ideal for this study due to the variety of hotel accommodation types and human resource management practices found within the metropolis. Hence, this setting seemed suitable to study training and development, employee motivation and employee performance in the hospitality industry.

3.2. Sampling Technique

The study population comprised of full time junior staff of registered one-to-four star hotels in the metropolis of Sekondi-Takoradi. The survey included a sample of hotel respondents representing 10 important operational departments, with an average full-time staff of 39 per hotel (GTA, 2023). A multi-stage sampling design was used in studying the respondents. During the first stage, the registered hotels in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis were classified into one star, two star, three star and four star hotels. A total of 19 eligible hotels were identified. At the second stage, 15 hotels were approached and five hotels refused or were not able to participate, leaving 10 participating hotels. These included three one-star, three two-star, two three-star and two four-star properties. The hotels were selected for the following reasons: eligibility, operational status, star rating and willingness to participate. In the third phase, the junior staff members in the front office, housekeeping, food and beverages, and administration departments of the participating hotels were identified as eligible. The number of respondents from each department was proportionate to the number of eligible employees in the department. Hotel managers or departmental supervisors worked to identify suitable employees who then were recruited voluntarily. Therefore, the respondents were not selected by random sampling at the individual level, but within the selected departments. After the data collection, the responses were checked for completeness and 296 complete responses were selected for final analysis. A total of 390 questionnaires were given to eligible respondents. 296 responses were retained for analysis after screening for completeness and consistency. The response rate provided an adequate number of observations for Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM), although non-response bias cannot be ruled out solely on the basis of response rate. The minimum required sample size of 107 was calculated using statistical power analysis, which was conducted by applying a medium effect size (f² = 0.15), significance level of 0.05, statistical power of 0.80, and a maximum of two predictors for each endogenous construct. This threshold was therefore easily surpassed and the final sample of 296 was considered sufficient for PLS-SEM analysis.

3.3. Data Collection Instrument

The Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis hotel workers were the subject of quantitative data collection using a structured questionnaire as the primary data collection tool. The objective of the questionnaire was to gather information related to training and development, employee motivation and employee performance. Items were developed from literature and from previously validated scales of measurement for training-motivation and performance. Training-related items were adapted from existing training and development programs, and motivation and performance items were taken from the many theoretical and empirical studies in human resource management. The instrument consisted mainly of closed questions, giving standardized answers suitable for statistical analysis. The instrument was then pre-tested before the data collection was carried out to test the clarity, relevance and suitability of the items for the respondents to be measured. Content validation was also obtained by expert review. The measurement model was then evaluated in terms of reliability and validity in the PLS-SEM framework through the criteria of Cronbach’s Alpha, Composite Reliability and Average Variance Extracted (AVE).

3.4. Measurement of Variables

The three constructs of the study were specified as reflective measurement models. Training and Development was measured using seven items (B1 - B7) adapted from Noe (2020), covering training needs analysis, training design and delivery, training content, and training evaluation. Employee Motivation was measured using 10 items (C1 - C10) adapted from Mitsakis and Galanakis (2022), reflecting intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors based on Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory. Employee Performance was measured using 14 items (D1 - D14) adapted from Karatepe (2013) and Koopmans et al. (2013), covering task proficiency, customer service quality, teamwork, and compliance behaviour. The items were adapted and, where necessary, modified to reflect the hotel-sector context while retaining the meaning of the original measures. No new items were developed for the study. All items were measured using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree. Table 1 shows sources and adaptation status of the constructs.

Table 1. Sources and adaptation of measurement items.

3.5. Data Collection and Analysis

Questionnaires were deployed face-to-face and electronically. The respondents were assured that their responses would be anonymous and confidential and there was no compulsion to participate. Completed questionnaires were checked for completeness and consistency prior to data analysis. The quantitative data were also analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, version 27.0) and SmartPLS 4. Simple descriptive statistics, such as frequencies, means and standard deviations, were used to summarize demographic characteristics and key study variables. PLS-SEM was used to analyze the relationship between training and development, employee motivation, and employee performance as well as the mediation of employee motivation. The analysis was carried out in two stages: the first was an assessment of the measurement model, carried out by examining the internal consistency reliability and convergent validity; the second was the assessment of the structural model, carried out by examining the path coefficients, coefficient of determination, effect size and predictive relevance. All the hypothesized relationships were tested for significance using a bootstrapping with 5000 resamples.

4. Results

The quantitative findings from hotel employees in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis are presented in this section. The findings of the study are discussed in four parts: demographic characteristics of respondents, the measurement model assessment, the assessment of the structural model, and the hypothesis testing via PLS-SEM.

4.1. Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Table 2 summarizes the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. There were more female respondents (n = 175) than male (n = 121). In terms of age, the largest group fell within the 25 - 32 years bracket (n = 104), followed by those aged 33 - 39 years (n = 72), 40 - 47 years (n = 53), and 18 - 24 years (n = 46), with employees aged 48 years and above constituting the smallest group (n = 21). In terms of length of service, the majority of respondents had less than five years of experience (n = 122), followed by 5 - 10 years (n = 106) and over 10 years (n = 68). The level of education of respondents showed that most had Senior High School (SHS) qualification, followed by Junior High School (JHS) qualification, non-formal education and tertiary education.

Table 2. Socio-demographic characteristics of junior staff.

Source: Fieldwork, 2025.

4.2. Measurement Model Assessment

The measurement model was assessed based on three criteria: indicator reliability, internal consistency reliability, and convergent validity, which are suggested by the PLS-SEM guidelines. The outer loadings were used as a gauge of the reliability of the indicators; loadings of 0.70 or more were considered acceptable because they indicate the smallest variance contributed by the construct of the indicator. The outer model results of PLS-SEM analysis are presented in Figure 2, showing the indicator loadings in the structure.

Figure 2. Outer model results.

The results in Table 3 revealed that the factor loadings ranged from 0.691 to 0.870, which were considered as reliable indicators. Internal consistency reliability was also tested with Cronbach’s alpha and Composite Reliability (rho_a and rho_c) and all constructs were found to exceed the value of 0.70. In addition, convergent validity was supported since all of the constructs were greater than 0.50 on AVE scores, indicating that the variance of the constructs’ indicators was explained by the constructs in a sufficient amount.

Table 3. Measurement model assessment results.

4.3. Discriminant Validity

To assess the discriminant validity, the Fornell-Larcker criterion and Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio were used. Using the Fornell-Lacker criterion, the square root of the AVE of each construct must be larger than the correlation of the construct with each other construct in the model (Hair et al., 2021). Table 4 shows that the square root of the AVE for three constructs were larger than the correlation for each row and column, meaning that each construct has more variance with its indicators than with any other construct. The discriminant validity was also examined using the HTMT ratio. The values shown in Table 5 range from 0.690 to 0.726, which is much lower than the recommended value of 0.85 (Henseler et al., 2015). This means that the constructs are empirically different and measure conceptually different phenomena.

Table 4. Fornell-Larcker criterion.

Table 5. HTMT results.

4.4. Coefficient of Determination (R²)

The coefficient of determination (R²) was used to evaluate the explanatory power of the endogenous constructs in the structural model. In the given model, Training and Development predicted Motivation, both Training and Development and Motivation predicted Performance, and Motivation was used for mediation analysis. The results of Training and Development show that a moderate variation in the level of employee Motivation was explained, as presented in Table 6 (R² = 0.393; adjusted R² = 0.391). Both Training and Development and Motivation accounted significantly to the variance in employee performance, with a combined R² of 0.541 and adjusted R² of 0.538. These values are in line with the guidelines proposed by Joseph F. Hair Jr., indicating a moderate explanatory power for Motivation and Performance (Fahmi et al., 2022). This means that the structural model has an acceptable explanatory capability for the two endogenous constructs.

4.5. Effect Sizes (f²)

All of the structural relationships have medium to large effect sizes as shown in Table 7. The path from Training and Development to Motivation shows a large effect (f² = 0.647), whereas the paths from Motivation to Performance (f² = 0.188) and from Training and Development to Performance (f² = 0.253) show medium effects.

Table 6. R² values.

Table 7. Effect sizes (f²).

4.6. Collinearity Statistics (VIF)

To check for possible multicollinearity among predictor constructs, collinearity was evaluated by the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). As seen in Table 8, none of the VIFs are higher than 1.647, which is well below the threshold of 3.3, meaning that there is no concern with multicollinearity in the structural model. The VIF of 1.000 in the Training and Development → Motivation path shows that this path has a single predictor specification for Motivation, whereas both paths predicting Performance have an identical VIF value of 1.647 indicating that the predictors share little explanatory influence, which is acceptable.

Table 8. Collinearity statistics (VIF).

4.7. Predictive Relevance (Q² Predict)

The Q² Predict procedure evaluated the model’s out-of-sample predictive capability, which calculates predictive relevance. The predictive relevance of the model was examined by calculating the Q² values, which are higher if the model is more successful in predicting the endogenous constructs. RMSE and MAE values were also utilized as measures of prediction error, with lower values representing greater predictive accuracy. As shown in Table 9, the Q² Predict values for both Motivation (0.386) and Performance (0.449) are significantly higher than zero, which indicates good predictive relevance for both endogenous constructs. The findings of the higher Q² Predict value for Performance in this study are also in line with the R² results in Table 6, indicating a higher out-of-sample prediction capability for Performance than for Motivation. In general, the model has good predictive ability.

Table 9. Predictive relevance (Q² Predict).

4.8. Structural Model Assessment

Table 10 and Table 11 show the direct and indirect structural path coefficients obtained from the PLS-SEM analysis. The standardized path coefficient (β) can be used to directly compare the strength of each relationship while the corresponding p-values show the statistical significance of each relationship.

4.9. Direct Structural Path Analysis

Path coefficients (β), t statistics and p values were used to test structural relationships computed using bootstrapping. The path coefficients follow Hair et al. (2019) and indicate the strength of relationships in both directions between constructs, where t-values exceeding 1.96 at a 5% significance level indicate statistical significance. All direct relationships hypothesized were positive and significant as presented in Table 10. Training and Development showed the strongest positive association with Motivation (β = 0.627, t = 17.535, p < 0.001) followed by the association between training and development and performance (β = 0.438, t = 9.165, p < 0.001). The association between Motivation and Performance was also positive and statistically significant (β = 0.377, t = 7.304, p < 0.001) on Performance. Thus, the three hypothesized positive relationships were statistically supported.

Table 10. Direct structural path estimates.

4.10. Mediation Analysis

The indirect association between Training and Development on Performance through the Mediating role of Motivation was investigated. Evidence for hypothesized mediation was assessed based on the statistical significance of the indirect association using bootstrapping (Tummers & Bekkers, 2014). The indirect effect was positive and statistically significant (β = 0.237, t = 6.879, p < 0.001), as demonstrated in Table 11. Importantly, the direct effect of Training and Development on Performance remained significant when Motivation was added into the model (β = 0.438, p < 0.001), indicating that the association between Training and Development and Performance is partially mediated by Motivation.

Table 11. Indirect effects in the model.

5. Discussion

The results suggest that there has been a significant positive relationship between training and development and employee motivation. This indicates that workers who perceive organizational investments are more likely to feel motivated and committed to their job. In addition to skill acquisition, training conveys the message of organizational support, recognition, and concern for employee development, which may be associated with employees feeling valued and confident in their careers. This is consistent with Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, which states that opportunities for growth, achievement and development serve as motivators that help to increase job satisfaction. Training renders both functional and psychological roles in the hospitality environment, where employees perceive training opportunities as ways of appreciation and support for their development. These findings are consistent with previous studies (Hasyim & Bakri, 2024; Waqanimaravu & Arasanmi, 2020), and may be especially significant in the developing hospitality context of Ghana, where more employees are exposed to less internal structured training opportunities, and thus value them more than those in industrialized nations. Furthermore, the study further validates the positive association between training and development and employee performance. Well-designed training programs are associated with better task performance, interpersonal skills, teamwork, and service delivery among employees. This finding is consistent with the Human Capital Theory, which states that investment in the skills and knowledge of employees is associated with increased productivity and organizational performance. Within the hospitality industry, training is a pivotal factor associated with customer satisfaction and the efficiency of hotel operations.

These results are also consistent with previous research studies (Otoo & Mishra, 2018; Waqanimaravu & Arasanmi, 2020; Hamid et al., 2023), which indicate that training is an important factor in performance enhancement, especially in developing service economies where skill gaps are still very common. The findings also indicate that there is a significant positive relationship between employee motivation and performance. In the hospitality industry, where customer service is essential, motivated employees are more likely to be committed, proactive, and willing to provide quality service. This finding also aligns with Herzberg’s theory, which associates job attitudes and job productivity with motivation. It is also consistent with empirical findings which show that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have a positive impact on the outcomes of performance (Fahriana, 2022; Hemakumara, 2020). However, motivation alone is not enough, employees should also have the required skills and competencies to work effectively, which means that employee training and motivation are complementary to performance.

The mediation analysis showed that employee motivation is a partial mediator between employee training and development and employee performance. This suggests two complementary effects: training and development is positively associated with employee competence and an additional indirect association through employee motivation. This partial mediation indicates that the association between training and development and performance is not explained by motivation alone. This relationship might also be explained by other constructs, including self-efficacy, job competence, and organizational commitment. The results help explain the mixed results in earlier research (Niati et al., 2021; Putranto et al., 2023), in which motivation was not always shown to be a weak or inconsistent mediator. Motivation can then be seen as one of the psychological/structural processes underlying the association between training and development and performance.

6. Conclusion

The current study explored the mediating role of employee motivation between training and development and employee performance of hotel workers in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis. It explored the direct and indirect associations between training and development and employee performance, using Human Capital Theory and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory. The findings showed that training and development were positively associated with employee motivation and employee motivation was also positively associated with employee performance. Importantly, the study found evidence that the training and development-performance link is partially mediated by employee motivation, the findings suggest that training and development is associated with employee motivation in addition to its relationship with employee performance. The findings contribute to the existing literature by providing empirical evidence from the Ghanaian hospitality industry and demonstrating a positive association between training and employee motivation, beyond its traditional role in enhancing skills and competencies. The study combines the Human Capital Theory and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory in one coherent explanation to better understand the association between training and development and employee performance. Practically, the results suggest that hospitality companies should view training and development as an investment associated with employee capacity and motivation. Therefore, hotel managers may consider creating training programs that are continuous, relevant to roles and career-oriented, and building work environments that recognize and support their employees’ growth and engagement. This is an integrated approach that strengthens employee performance, service quality and organizational competitiveness.

6.1. Implications of the Study

The study findings advance theories, synthesizing the Human Capital Theory and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory into one explanatory framework. Human Capital Theory suggests that training is associated with the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies which are in turn associated with employee performance (Nor, 2023; Mahssouni et al., 2022). Herzberg’s theory also adds to this by explaining that training is associated with motivation and at the same time provides opportunities for growth, recognition and personal development (Mampuru et al., 2024; Dieleman et al., 2003). The combined results provide evidence of the relationship between training and development, employee capabilities and motivation. This integrated view builds on current research by suggesting that the association between training and performance may involve both employee capabilities and psychological factors related to employees’ willingness to apply their skills. As a result, the study aims to increase understanding of the relationship between training and organizational performance. The results have significant implications for the hotel industry in Ghana, which still encounters high turnover of staff, lack of skills, poor service quality, and increasing demands from customers (Ampofo, 2020; Sulemana et al., 2023). In such a setting, employee development programs are not just a sideline—they are essential strategic investments that may support service excellence and organizational competitiveness. Possibly, the strong relationship observed could be attributed to the labor-intensive nature of hospitality operations in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis. Given the importance of employee-customer interactions to service quality, training and motivation may be relevant organizational factors associated with employee performance and service outcomes (Chikazhe & Nyakunuwa, 2022; Hays & Hill, 2001). Furthermore, with relatively low levels of training opportunities in many hospitality establishments, employees may find more value in participating in development programs which can may be associated with stronger employee motivation (Djajasinga et al., 2021; Stavrinoudis & Psimoulis, 2017). The findings suggest that hotel managers may benefit from viewing training and development as a strategic investment rather than solely as an administrative activity. Training should be on-going, job-specific and linked to organizational goals and personal career plans. These programs should be supported by motivational programs such as recognition systems, formal feedback on performance, promotion structures and positive leadership relationships. In addition to the development of technical skills, hospitality organizations need to develop training programs designed to foster employees’ sense of achievement, professional development and sense of value. Organizations may consider integrating motivational components into developmental programs, given the observed association between training, motivation and employee performance.

6.2. Limitations and Future Research

There are a number of limitations to the study that need to be noted. First, the cross-sectional design does not provide any causal relationships or temporal order between training and development, employee motivation, and employee performance. Longitudinal designs in future studies may be useful to explore the dynamics of these relationships over time. Second, all three constructs were assessed with self-reported measures from the same respondents. This single-source approach could lead to common-method bias and social desirability bias, which might overestimate the relationships found. Future research should do this by looking at the combination of employee responses, supervisor-rated performance, objective performance measures, or multiple time measures. Thirdly, there were only 10 participating hotels with 296 respondents. This hotel-level clustering was not explicitly modelled in the PLS-SEM or accounted for by bootstrapping with clusters. Thus the reported standard errors, the t-statistics and p-values may be slightly anti-conservative. Further research should consider the hierarchical structure of employees in hotels by applying multilevel modelling or cluster adjusted resampling. Lastly, the study was restricted to hotels in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis, which might restrict the generalizability of the results to other parts of the country or other sectors. The model could be tested in various regions and in other hospitality contexts to determine if the same relationships are observed.

Author Contributions

Adelaide Spio-Kwofie (ASK) is a senior lecturer at the Takoradi Technical University, Ghana. She currently heads the Department of Hospitality Management. The topic falls within her coursework, and she is also the corresponding author for this paper. Emzara Ansah Sam (EAS) is a master’s student in the department and the manageress at Raybow Hotel. She provided basic technical support during the initial stage of manuscript preparation, administered the questionnaire, and conducted interviews. Georgina Dadson (GD) is a lecturer in the Department of Hospitality Management. She assisted with editing and proofreading the manuscript. Pearl Aba Eshun (PAE) is an assistant lecturer in the Department of Hospitality Management, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Takoradi Technical University. She helped with the logistics of the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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