Regret Attribution Scale (R.A.S) for Adolescents and Early Adults ()
1. Introduction
The word “Regret” is originated from the Middle French word “regretter” which means to lament or to complain. Further, in Frankish and Proto-Germanic-Indo-European, it means to weep and be sad [1].
We tend to experience negative and even painful feelings when wishing we had made a better decision. These and other emotions can be anticipated at the very moment a decision is made, influencing and guiding our choices thereby. The emotion that is frequently studied by decision theorists is regret, “a counterfactual emotion that one experiences after realizing or imagining that a better outcome could have been obtained, had one decided differently” [2].
According to Luisa Pape and Luis. F. Martinez, “Regret is an emotion that occurs when a person is thinking about how a current situation would have been better if a different decision had been made” [3].
Melanie Greenberg defined regret as a “A negative cognitive or emotional state that involves blaming ourselves for a bad outcome, feeling a sense of loss or sorrow at what might have been, or wishing we could undo a previous choice that we made” [4].
The experience of regret depends on choice- or behaviour-focused counterfactual thoughts, and its intensity varies in relation to the availability of counterfactual alternatives [5].
Specifically, the anticipation of regret can increase the attractiveness of certain alternatives [6]. The emotion of disappointment is also based on counterfactual thinking: We feel disappointment when we find ourselves wishing that events of the world had turned out better for us. The emotion of regret results from a comparison between an actual outcome and a better outcome that might have occurred had another option been chosen [7].
Regret is the negative emotion driven by these self-focused thoughts of “what might have been” [8]. Regret shapes multiple aspects of decision processes, from avoidance of the decision to shifting responsibility for the decision to reframing decision alternatives, and it motivates information search about decision alternatives and motivates choice switching [9].
The Decision-Justification theory proposes that one key influence on regret is the outcome of the decision: We feel more regret over decisions whose outcomes compare poorly to those of options foregone. However, decision-justification theory suggests furthermore that the intensity of regret felt also depends on the degree to which the individual identifies the decision as justifiable: A decision that results in a poor outcome will cause less regret if the decision was, in retrospect, still justified [10].
In simple words, “Regret is a self-focused aversive feeling wherein the person realizes he/she would not have ended up in self-blame if a different decision would have been made” [11].
Otherwise, it can be defined as “An emotional and cognitive experience wherein a person feels a sense of sorrow and disappointment which results into self-blame for not making a more favourable decision than the actual decision made” [12].
The six main factors of regret are as follows:
1) Self-Blame (For the selected path)
It is defined as “the attribution that the consequences one experiences are a direct result of one’s actions or character”. Janoff-Bulman (1979) proposed two types of self-blame: (a) an adaptive, control-oriented response where the focus is on the individual’s behaviour and (b) a maladaptive, esteem-oriented response where the focus is on the individual’s character [13].
2) Disappointment (of received results)
It is simply the unhappiness or discouragement that results when your hopes or expectations have not been satisfied, or someone or something that is not as good as you had hoped or expected. Regret and disappointment have in common the fact that they are experienced when the outcome of a decision is unfavourable: They both concern “what might have been” [14].
3) Sleep Disturbances
Sleep disturbances encompass about initiating and maintaining sleep. Such disturbances include excessive daytime sleepiness, irregular breathing or increased movement during sleep, suffocation while sleeping, insomnia. Not getting proper and sound sleep affects almost all areas of life such as safety, relationships, school and work performance, thinking, mental health, weight and it may also lead to the development of diabetes and heart disease.
4) Sadness and Gloominess
Sadness is the feeling of being unhappy, especially because something bad has happened, whereas gloominess is the feeling of thoughtful sadness or the quality of excessive mournfulness and uncheerfulness. It occurs when something that is not satisfactory or pleasant has happened which results in the instance state of sorrow.
5) Guilt (of the wrong path)
It is described as the responsibility for doing something wrong or for something bad that has happened. “Guilt is described as a self-conscious emotion that involves negative evaluations of the self, feelings of distress, and feelings of failure”. People may feel guilt over things they actually did wrong, things they believe were their fault, or things they had no responsibility for [15].
6) Changes in Appetite
Appetite is a person’s desire to eat food. It is distinct from hunger, which is the body’s biological response to a lack of food. A person can have an appetite even if their body is not showing signs of hunger. A person’s emotional state has a significant effect on their appetite. Stress or grief may cause people to eat more food as a way of coping with how they feel, but for others, these emotions have the opposite effect [16].
2. Test Material and Use
2.1. Materials
The Regret Attribution Scale (R.A.S) includes a manual with the scoring key and the main questionnaire which has 45 items. The first section of the questionnaire consists of the 15 items which are used to record the demographic details which is divided into 2 pages (See Appendix). Then the instructions are provided for the main questionnaire which comprises of 30 items divided over 3 pages. The scale is divided into 6 sub-factors, their details and relevant items are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Distribution of items.
SR. NO |
FACTOR |
ITEM NUMBER |
TOTAL ITEMS |
1. |
Self-blame (For the selected path) |
1, 7, 13, 19, 25 |
5 |
2. |
Disappointment (Of received results) |
2, 8, 14, 20, 26 |
5 |
3. |
Sleep Disturbances |
3, 9, 15, 21, 27 |
5 |
4. |
Sadness And Gloominess |
4, 10, 16, 22, 28 |
5 |
5. |
Guilt (of the wrong path) |
5, 11, 17, 23, 29 |
5 |
6. |
Changes in Appetite |
6, 12, 18, 24, 30 |
5 |
2.2. Appropriate Population
The Regret Attribution Scale is applicable only to individuals from 16 to 25 years of age. The individuals who are unwilling or unable to adequately complete this test should not be administered through it. The respondent should possess proper reading and writing comprehension of the English Language. In special cases, where the subject is unable to read/or write adequately, the test must be administered orally.
2.3. Use
Helps to illustrate and improve self-awareness of one’s overall regret in life. This will in turn help in improving the process of decision making.
Helps in finding out in which aspect there is more amount of regret and how it the reasons for it could be discovered.
Helps to carry out further research in the field of developmental psychology and any study pertaining to clinical settings.
Helps Counsellors and Psychologists to assess how individuals deal with decision situations after the decision has been made, specifically the extent to which they experience regret.
3. Administration
3.1. Directions
This test consists of filling out of a questionnaire with 45 questions (including demographics) and every question needs to be answered honestly after reading attentively. The test administrator needs to ensure that no question was left by the subject and that the instructions are clear to the subject. Only one individual can fill this form.
The environment during answering the test should be stress-free, without distractions, calm and peaceful.
The materials required for taking the tests are the questionnaires, a pen or pencil and a flat surface on which the subject can write.
3.2. Instructions
Give the Regret Attribution Scale questionnaires to the subjects and say:
“If you are willingly taking this test fill in the consent form or else, you are free to withdraw as a part of the study. The participation in this study is purely voluntary. You may withdraw at any period through the duration of the study. The withdrawal will not incur any penalty on the part of the participant. Please read and fill all the demographic details (See Appendix). Then, move forward and answer the main questionnaire. Please answer every statement honestly and truthfully without any hesitation. Every item of information you provide on this scale shall be kept confidential. If you have any questions as to what you are supposed to do, please feel free to ask.”
Provide further clarification of instructions when personally asked (See Table 2).
Table 2. Demographics.
1. Gender |
|
Male |
Female |
Total |
Number |
53 |
108 |
161 |
% |
32.9 |
67.1 |
100 |
2. Age |
|
16 - 20 years |
21 - 25 years |
Total |
Number |
97 |
64 |
161 |
% |
60.2 |
39.8 |
100 |
3. Siblings |
|
Yes |
No (Only Child) |
Total |
Number |
133 |
28 |
161 |
% |
82.6 |
17.4 |
100 |
4. Level of Education |
|
High School Student |
University Student (Bachelors) |
University
Student (Masters) |
Other |
Total |
Number |
17 |
116 |
24 |
4 |
161 |
% |
10.6 |
72.0 |
14.9 |
2 |
100 |
5. Employment Status |
|
Employed (Full Time) |
Employed (Part Time) |
Self-Employed |
Student |
Unemployed |
Total |
Number |
14 |
12 |
6 |
123 |
6 |
161 |
% |
8.7 |
7.5 |
3.7 |
76.4 |
3.7 |
100 |
6. Area of Birth |
|
% |
Count |
Rural |
16.8 |
27 |
Urban |
83.2 |
134 |
7. Area of Current Living |
|
Rural |
Urban |
Total |
Number |
19 |
142 |
161 |
% |
11.8 |
88.2 |
100 |
8. Household Income |
|
Below 5 lakhs |
5 - 10 Lakhs |
10 - 15 Lakhs |
15 - 20 Lakhs |
Above 20 Lakhs |
Total |
Number |
43 |
48 |
32 |
12 |
26 |
161 |
% |
26.7 |
29.8 |
19.9 |
7.5 |
16.1 |
100 |
|
Rural |
Urban |
Total |
Number |
27 |
134 |
161 |
% |
16.8 |
83.2 |
100 |
9. Living Status |
|
In Hostel |
On Rent |
With Joint Family |
With Nuclear Family |
Total |
Number |
19 |
6 |
38 |
98 |
161 |
% |
11.8 |
3.7 |
23.6 |
60.9 |
100 |
10. Decision Takers |
|
Father |
Mother |
Other/Myself |
Total |
Number |
84 |
40 |
37 |
161 |
% |
52.2 |
24.8 |
23.0 |
100 |
4. Scoring Mechanism and Interpretation
4.1. Scoring Mechanism (See Table 3)
Table 3. The following scale is used to score the questions.
Never |
Rarely |
Sometimes |
Often |
Always |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
4.2. Interpretation
The scores are to be calculated first in an overall total of all the sub factors and then individually for each sub factor. The distribution of items has been shown in Table 1.
The scoring range for overall total and each sub factor is as follows (See Table 4).
Table 4. Norm table entire regret attribution scale.
Category |
Range |
Low |
30 - 69 |
Average |
83 |
High |
97 - 127 |
1. Self-Blame |
|
Category |
Range |
Low |
5 - 12 |
Average |
15 |
High |
17 - 25 |
2. Disappointment |
|
Category |
Range |
Low |
5 - 11 |
Average |
14 |
High |
16 - 25 |
3. Sleep Disturbances |
|
Category |
Range |
Low |
5 - 11 |
Average |
14 |
High |
17-25 |
4. Sadness and Gloominess |
|
Category |
Range |
Low |
5 - 11 |
Average |
13 |
High |
16 - 25 |
5. Guilt |
|
Category |
Range |
Low |
5 - 13 |
Average |
16 |
High |
18 - 25 |
6. Change in Appetite |
|
Category |
Range |
Low |
5 - 10 |
Average |
12 |
High |
15 - 25 |
5. Results and Discussion
The Pilot Study was conducted on 161 subjects. And the results obtained for the Regret Attribution Scale are shown in Tables 5-10.
Table 5. Descriptive statistics (overall).
|
V1 |
V2 |
V3 |
V4 |
V5 |
V6 |
Mean |
2.9 |
2.7 |
2.8 |
13.6 |
3.1 |
2.5 |
Maximum |
22 |
23 |
22 |
23 |
24 |
21 |
Minimum |
6 |
6 |
5 |
6 |
6 |
5 |
Standard Deviation |
3.4 |
4.0 |
3.9 |
3.9 |
3.5 |
3.2 |
Low |
12 |
11 |
11 |
11 |
13 |
10 |
Average |
15 |
14 |
14 |
13 |
16 |
12 |
High |
17 |
16 |
17 |
16 |
18 |
15 |
Table 6. Number of samples in each category.
|
V1 |
V2 |
V3 |
V4 |
V5 |
V6 |
Low |
50 |
43 |
42 |
54 |
48 |
47 |
Average |
65 |
67 |
75 |
57 |
68 |
73 |
High |
46 |
51 |
44 |
49 |
45 |
41 |
Table 7. Descriptive statistics (overall) (gender).
|
Male |
Female |
Mean |
2.7 |
2.7 |
Minimum |
21 |
21 |
Maximum |
125 |
127 |
Standard Deviation |
19.0 |
18.9 |
Low |
69 |
70 |
Average |
82 |
83 |
High |
99 |
97 |
Table 8. Number of samples in each category (overall) (gender).
|
Male |
Female |
Low |
10 |
31 |
Average |
27 |
53 |
High |
16 |
24 |
Table 9. Descriptive statistics (each sub factor) (gender).
|
V1 |
V2 |
V3 |
V4 |
V5 |
V6 |
|
M |
F |
M |
F |
M |
F |
M |
F |
M |
F |
M |
F |
Mean |
14.3 |
14.4 |
13.7 |
13.8 |
14.0 |
14.1 |
13.5 |
13.6 |
15.5 |
15.5 |
12.3 |
12.4 |
Minimum |
6 |
6 |
6 |
6 |
5 |
5 |
6 |
6 |
6 |
6 |
5 |
5 |
Maximum |
21 |
22 |
23 |
23 |
22 |
22 |
23 |
23 |
24 |
24 |
21 |
21 |
Standard Deviation |
3.3 |
3.2 |
3.9 |
3.8 |
3.8 |
3.8 |
4.0 |
3.9 |
3.6 |
3.5 |
3.2 |
3.2 |
Low |
12 |
12 |
11 |
11 |
11 |
11 |
11 |
11 |
13 |
13 |
10 |
10 |
Average |
15 |
15 |
14 |
14 |
14 |
14 |
13 |
13 |
16 |
16 |
12 |
12 |
High |
17 |
17 |
16 |
16 |
17 |
17 |
16 |
16 |
18 |
18 |
14 |
15 |
Table 10. Number of samples in each category (each sub factor) (gender).
|
V1 |
V2 |
V3 |
V4 |
V5 |
V6 |
|
M |
F |
M |
F |
M |
F |
M |
F |
M |
F |
M |
F |
Low |
15 |
35 |
12 |
31 |
11 |
31 |
20 |
34 |
15 |
33 |
13 |
34 |
Average |
20 |
45 |
20 |
45 |
18 |
49 |
11 |
46 |
19 |
49 |
14 |
48 |
High |
18 |
28 |
21 |
32 |
16 |
28 |
22 |
28 |
19 |
26 |
26 |
26 |
A high score indicates that the individual has a high level of regret and there are many problems that need to be addressed related to that variable that are affecting the person to reduce his level of regret and keeps him away to remain happy.
An average score indicates that there only fewer or some problems that need to addressed but the individual is managing somehow with certain amount of regret.
A low score indicates that there is very less amount of regret that the individual has and the person feels good and satisfied with his life in general.
The Cronbach’s Alpha of .913 indicates very high internal consistency for this scale based on these 6 items of each sub scale of the primary phenomenon of regret (See Table 11).
Table 11. Reliability.
Cronbach’s Alpha |
Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items |
N of Items |
0.913 |
0.914 |
6 |
Table 12. Inter-item correlation.
|
Self-Blame |
Disappointment |
Sleep Disturbances |
Sadness Gloominess |
Guilt |
Change in appetite |
Self-Blame |
1.000 |
0.661 |
0.675 |
0.658 |
0.659 |
0.534 |
Disappointment |
0.661 |
1.000 |
0.599 |
0.710 |
0.673 |
0.558 |
Sleep Disturbances |
0.675 |
0.599 |
1.000 |
0.689 |
0.567 |
0.657 |
Sadness/Gloominess |
0.658 |
0.710 |
0.689 |
1.000 |
0.687 |
0.676 |
Guilt |
0.659 |
0.673 |
0.567 |
0.687 |
1.000 |
0.564 |
Change in Appetite |
0.534 |
0.558 |
0.657 |
0.676 |
0.564 |
1.000 |
The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of 0.649 depicts marginal sampling adequacy for factor analysis, while Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity is significant (p < 0.001), indicating that the correlations between the subscales are sufficiently large for factor analysis (See Table 13).
Table 13. KMO & bartlett’s test.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. |
0.649 |
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity |
Approx. Chi-Square |
1263.227 |
df |
21 |
Sig. |
<0.001 |
While the components are extracted, all six and the overall “Regret” score load strongly onto this single component, suggesting that they all contribute substantially to this underlying dimension of understanding the overall phenomenon of regret (See Table 14).
Table 14. Component matrix.
|
Component |
1 |
Self-Blame |
0.837 |
Disappointment |
0.837 |
Sleep Disturbances |
0.836 |
Sadness/Gloominess |
0.884 |
Guilt |
0.829 |
Change in Appetite |
0.789 |
Regret |
0.995 |
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. a. 1 components extracted.
6. Discussion
The findings of a study provide support for the Regret Attribution Scale (R.A.S) as a psychometric tool that could be used to assess regret in adolescents and early adults. The observations levels of regret are average within the participant group of the pilot study align with the understanding that regret is a common emotional experience that this population goes through the developmental stages, as the individuals make their way to increase independence and decision-making [17]. Significant levels of regret are reported by both adolescents and early adults, which suggests that the experience of regret is salient across this developmental stage. This finding provides a strong foundation for considering regret as a relevant aspect in psychological well-being during these formative years.
Previous research study also aligns with the finding that females report higher levels of regret as compared to males which depicts gender differences in emotional processing [18]. This can be seen due a number of factors such as socialization patterns that promote more emotional expressiveness in females or differences in rumination styles [19]. Further research into different aspect of the gender differences within the context of regret should be conducted. The subscales of R.A.S scale which makes it more multifaceted understanding of regret. These subscales of this scale dive into the cognitive, emotional and physiological manifestations of regret showcasing its pervasive influence on individual experiences. This idea aligns with the appraisal theory of emotion. Which describes that, emotions like regret includes complex evaluations of past events and its consequences [20] [21].
The development and validation of the R.A.S scale contributes to the existing pool of knowledge on regret by providing a tailor-made instrument for adolescents and early adults. While the existing scales of regret are mostly for adult population or for a specific arena of life, this scale offers a broader assessment of regret attributions to relevant experiences of the age group. However, there are certain limitations that needs to be considered while interpreting the findings of this pilot study. The sample of 161 participants may be limited and not allow full generalizability of the results to a larger and diverse populations.
Future research on regret should aim to replicate these findings with larger and more diverse populations with samples from different cultures. Furthermore, the cross-sectional nature of the pilot study doesn’t allow for the examination of longitudinal patterns of regret attribution. Future research could be conducted to longitudinal designs to further explore how regret experiences and attributions evolve over time in adolescents and early adults.
7. Conclusion
The Regret Attribution Scale (R.A.S) demonstrates strong psychometric properties for assessing the levels and reasons for regret in adolescents and early adults. The results of the pilot study, reveal that from the 161 participants the majority of them experienced an average level of regret, with both adolescents and early adults which depicts significant levels of regret. It was found that females had a tendency for reporting more degree of regret as compared to males. This manual outlines the procedures for the administering and scoring of the R.A.S scale, making a valuable tool for researchers and practitioners in understanding the arena of regret in these developmental stages. Further research is needed to strengthen its validity and explore its effectiveness in diverse backgrounds and longitudinal studies, as well as in clinical and educational settings.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Appendix
Demographic Details
1) Please state your gender:
a) Male
b) Female
c) Other (Please specify) ___________
2) What is your current age? ________________
3) What is your nationality? _________________
4) Do you have siblings?
a) Yes - (Please Specify the number) __________
b) No (Only Child)
5) What is your level of Level of Education?
a) High School Student
b) University Student (Bachelors)
c) University Student (Masters)
d) Other (Please Specify) ______________
6) What is your employment status?
a) Unemployed (currently looking for work)
b) Employed (Full-time)
c) Employed (Part-time)
d) Student
e) Self-Employed
7) What kind of area are you raised in?
a) Rural
b) Urban
8) Where do you live currently?
a) Rural
b) Urban
9) What is your father’s occupation? _________________
10) What is your mother’s occupation? ________________
11) Please state your ethnicity? __________________
12) What is your household income?
a) Below 5 lakhs
b) 5 - 10 lakhs
c) 10 - 15 lakhs
d) 15 - 20 lakhs
e) Above 20 lakhs
13) What is your living Status?
a) With Joint family
b) With Nuclear Family
c) On Rent
d) In hostel
14) Who is the person who takes your important life decisions?
a) Father
b) Mother
c) Other (Please Specify) __________
Questionnaire
The purpose of this scale is to measure the levels of regret of the individual. The scale is comprised of 30 statements on different dimensions of regret. Each question is followed by several possible answers. Please read them carefully.
You are requested to provide information about yourself only.
Please answer every statement with utmost honesty and truthfulness and without any hesitation.
Every item of information provided by you in this scale shall be kept confidential.
There are five responses in every statement, ranging from “Never to Always”. Although there is no time limit, still be quick in your work.
There cannot be more than one response for a question.
Whichever alternative out of these five is true for you or resembles your behaviour, should be indicated with the tick mark (✔) on the appropriate response:
Sr. No |
Statement |
Never |
Rarely |
Sometimes |
Often |
Always |
Score |
1. |
Whenever I am stuck, I feel like “Why didn’t I talk to my friends, family or peers about this” |
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2. |
I easily get confused when I have more than one option. |
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3. |
I get nightmares in my deep sleep. |
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4. |
I feel sleepy, most of the day. |
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5. |
Most of times I fail in my tasks despite thinking that I have performed them properly. |
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6. |
I’m more prone to binge/over eating. |
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7. |
I tend to choose things very spontaneously. |
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8. |
I ask myself ‘Why do I never get what I want? |
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9. |
When I’m trying to sleep, my mind is full of thoughts. |
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10. |
I feel unhappy because of the choice I made. |
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11. |
I heavily criticize myself. |
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12. |
I feel less hungry. |
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13. |
I ruined the situation because I couldn’t find the bug. |
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14. |
My real skills were not put to use. |
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15. |
I feel dizzy and have a headache. |
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16. |
I’m unable to pay attention on other important things, as I easily get distracted. |
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17. |
I try to make things more perfect. |
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18. |
I feel stressed and drained out. |
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19. |
I’m constantly thinking about the choice I made. |
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20. |
When I make eye contact with people, I feel ashamed and embarrassed. |
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21. |
I’m so tired that I cannot concentrate on my work. |
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22. |
I unable to do my daily routine tasks easily. |
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23. |
I should have rather given it a second thought before deciding. |
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24. |
I feel nauseatic and giddy. |
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25. |
I feel I did not give my 100 %. |
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26. |
I didn’t get what I wanted. |
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27. |
Because I’m unable to concentrate it reduces the quality of my performance. |
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28. |
I feel sad because of other’s judgements on my choice. |
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29. |
I feel I underestimate myself. |
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30. |
I experience indigestion and constipation. |
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