Abstract

Leadership promotes sustainable actions and positive outcomes to address systemic issues. For decades, Black women and girls suffered from unsolved cases and increased homicide rates. Poverty and violence became widespread in several states exacerbated by inaction and bias from police authorities and preferential treatment from the media. Reports and data trends highlighted that African American women and girls encountered violence and death four times more than in white communities. Sociopolitical theories elucidated how society propagated inaction, generalization, and unfair treatment. Patriarchy, skewed power dynamics, victimization, and lack of inclusivity contributed to an imbalance in the criminal justice system. Media outlets preferred to focus on missing white women while police authorities conducted long and subjective processes in investigating missing women and girls. The paper aims to understand the role of federal intervention in addressing inequities in the law enforcement and media industry. The systematic review of literature utilizes peer-reviewed articles, relevant texts, government reports, and reputable news items to address the pervasiveness of inequity and the function of the federal government. A systematic review process was conducted, incorporating peer-reviewed articles, government reports, and high-impact news outlets. This approach ensured a comprehensive evaluation of evidence-based strategies to address inequities in law enforcement and media coverage of missing and murdered Black women and girls.

Keywords

BIPOC, Department of Justice, Policymaking

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1. Introduction

The law enforcement and media outlets play a critical role in addressing inequities and criminal justice cases. In the United States, law enforcement and distributed justice equate to “democratic policing” [1]. The United States is known for being an advanced nation that created policies, regulations, and structures to ensure peace and order. The criminal justice system enabled law enforcement to advocate for human rights, conduct fair practices, and represent the truth. The media also provides information, disseminates findings, and offers diverse opinions regarding criminal justice. Public perceptions formed through oral reports and written accounts provided by the media ranged from crime prevention, public safety, and implementation of policies [2]. From investigations to court trials, the media becomes an arm of the public to emphasize the development and progress of the criminal justice system. However, the federal government plays a critical role in addressing gaps and inequities.

However, in 1971, criminal justice and policing encountered debates and diverging views regarding fair treatment, just decision-making, and reasonable dispersal of resources [1]. In John Rawls’ Theory of Justice concepts and principles produced inquiries and debates regarding the existence of impartiality and biases [1]. The theory was grounded in the reality that integrating equality in all aspects was next to impossible. However, the theory also highlighted that leaders must address injustices by applying fairness through the following areas: 1) government leaders and agencies must exemplify the rule of law and impartiality, 2) people benefit from human rights and legislation, and 3) regardless of background, people receive justice and fair treatment [1]. The expansive and intricate nature of criminal justice imparted barriers and misunderstandings with the public. The media advocates for truth and produces reports and narratives to interpret criminal justice policies and interventions [2]. The public consumes news pieces fed by media outlets that range from political intervention and community policing. However, the media possessed another side that exacerbated impartiality and gaps across communities. Some media outlets formed biases, generalizations, and inaccuracies to the point of sensationalizing crime reports [2]. These gaps manifest in the form of selective media coverage that prioritizes white victims, leading to disparities in public awareness and law enforcement accountability [2]. Media focus on “newsworthy” cases perpetuates stereotypes and neglects systemic issues, shrinking trust in the criminal justice system among marginalized communities. As for law enforcement, leaders and officers also displayed biases and inaccuracies in maintaining peace and stability.

How can the establishment of a federal office for missing and murdered Black women and girls address systemic disparities in law enforcement and media coverage of missing persons cases involving Black women and girls, and what measurable impact could this have on public awareness, resource allocation, and case resolution?

2. Background

In the modern landscape, policies and approaches entered reforms to address inconsistencies in the criminal justice system. Media outlets became representations and mouthpieces to update the public regarding how police officers decrease crimes. The criminal justice system invested in technology, manpower, and resources to protect the greater good. However, a recent article published by NBC News revealed failings in the criminal justice system wherein African Americans suffer from high crime rates compared to White communities [3]. In the 2024 report, the Centers for Disease Control and the Lancet revealed startling data regarding vanished and murdered African American women from ages 25 to 44 in various areas in the United States. As highlighted by NBC News, African American women lived in dark and uncertain times as they were “six times more likely” to experience violence, kidnapping, and death [3]. In the epidemiological research gathered by the Centers for Disease Control, disproportions took place in homicide cases and interventions conducted by police authorities from 1999 to 2020 [4]. From thirty states, public health authorities sounded an alarm because of how African American women and girls encountered unfair treatment and lack of intervention from the criminal justice system. In two decades, disparities worsened despite investments in modern technology, crime investigation, and reporting. Nothing changed in two decades and racial disparity clustered in high crime-rate areas such as Wisconsin. Gun-related violence, disappearance, and death affected African American women across states [4]. In front-page articles and television highlights, victimization rates differ across Whites, African Americans, and Latin women residing in various states [5]. Female-based violence and deaths became rampant in the 21^st century because of how media outlets and social media disseminated reports. However, reports regarding missing and murdered women and girls tend to focus on White communities [5]. In recent times, field scholars labeled the phenomenon as “missing white woman syndrome” to describe the media’s fixation on crime cases perpetrated against White communities [5]. Media produced unbalanced reports between women of color and White communities which overlooked the plight of stigmatized groups, especially African Americans. Based on case reports, harsh punishments and death sentences were heavily awarded to offenders who abused and murdered White women [5]. The combined preferential treatment among police officers and media outlets widened systemic impartialities. African American women and girls failed to receive justice, fair treatment, and peace and order because of how the current system mobilizes.

• The research aims to identify evidence-based interventions, criminal justice policies, and media approaches that lead to the establishment of a federal office for missing and murdered Black women and girls.

• The paper integrates peer-reviewed journals and relevant texts regarding political theories, existing policies, and criminal justice principles and approaches to address disparities in missing persons in the United States.

• The paper seeks to determine the impact of federal intervention on law enforcement, media treatment, gender crime rates, public awareness, and systemic issues.

The study seeks to produce relevant arguments and evidence-based strategies to resolve systemic racism, impartial treatment, and media underrepresentation of African American women and children. Criminal justice highlighted developments, renewal of policies, and resource investments. However, epidemiological studies revealed inconsistencies and gaps in crime rates and media reports that favored and sensationalized White communities. The research highlights the critical need to establish a federal office to protect women and girls regardless of background and status. The results of the study also initiate future research, multidisciplinary collaborations, and systematic discourses to strengthen the establishment of the federal office.

3. Methodology

A systematic review of the literature was utilized to determine evidence-based strategies, professional insights, political theories and historical findings, case studies, and current trends regarding criminal justice and media treatment of gender-based violence and solutions. In the systematic review of literature, relevant texts and peer-reviewed articles published in reputable databases were applied. Government reports, textbooks, and high-impact news outlets were also integrated into the systematic review to diversify findings.

3.1. Search Strategy

Inclusion Criteria

• The inclusion criteria focused on peer-reviewed articles, government reports, and media sources from well-established databases such as ScienceDirect, JSTOR, and SAGE to ensure academic rigor and reliability. Utilization of multiple years ensures analysis of trends and changes in various periods. (Table 1)

• The published texts and journals came from reputable authors and databases to ensure viability and reliability.

• Historical and sociopolitical theories were integrated into the literature review.

• To ensure the selection was unbiased and comprehensive, studies were systematically reviewed and cross-referenced for methodological soundness, thematic relevance, and alignment with the research objectives.

• English-only texts and journals.

Exclusion Criteria

• Master’s and dissertation articles were omitted from the review since they did not undergo a peer-review process. (See Table 2)

Table 1. Relevant texts, journals, and reports.

Table 2. Research databases and keywords applied for identifying articles on systemic disparities.

Table 3 shows relevant information on Google search.

Table 3. Google search.

PRISMA diagram (Figure 1) showing the selection process from initial records to final included studies.

Figure 1. The Prisma diagram.

Figure 1 illustrates a total of n = 1210 records from high-impact research databases and Google searches. Research databases incurred a total of n = 950 while Google Search obtained n = 260 composed of government reports, media publications, and crime texts. Articles and texts with duplications and deemed ineligible were removed from the selection process (n = 850). Screened records obtained n = 360 and when the data filter was applied, the selected data was brought down to n = 280. The search filter focused on the following aspects: 1) femicide, 2) African American women and girls, and 3) federal actions, policies, and community strategies. After the screening process, a total of n = 80 revealed free access to resources. Free full texts enabled the research to address pricing limitations, delays in access, and waiting time due to authors’ approval. From n = 80, the final count of selected journals shifted to n = 20 as the other texts became ineligible because of language and other varia. (See Table 3)

3.2. Data Extraction

Key Themes in Femicide and Systemic Issues.

The combined utilization of research databases, government reports, media articles, and relevant texts produced diverse information, evidence, and argumentation. However, the issue produced expansive topics which prompted data extraction, coding process, and thematic analysis. Thematic coding enabled a systematic literature review to obtain critical arguments, important key points, and emerging approaches regarding federal intervention and systemic issues in femicide, abduction, and abuse. The thematic coding generated the following themes.

• Sociopolitical theories and historical findings.

• Femicide, Media, and Law Enforcement Disparities.

• Surveillance and Multidisciplinary collaboration.

• Reforms in criminal justice, community policing, and media reporting.

• Opportunities and sustainable practices.

4. Results

4.1. Sociopolitical Theories and Historical Findings

In the criminal justice system, most reports clustered around how people of color propagated violence, drugs, kidnapping, and murder. However, before the turn of the century, findings revealed how people of color experienced increased victimization and unsolved crimes, especially among Black women [6]. In the article published in 1999, women of color suffered from homicide, rape, assault, and multiple kidnapping while their male counterparts languished in jail and served with maximum penalty. However, the criminal justice system created lapses in judgment and approach in the Black/White ratio in victimization and criminality [6]. More Black women disappeared and suffered despite high incarceration rates compared to their White counterparts. A recent article from 2023 highlighted that gender violence increased during COVID-19 wherein Black women suffered from systemic inequities and poor representations [7]. Data shows a 30% rise in intimate partner homicides at the height of the pandemic [8]. Factors such as isolation during lockdowns, economic instability, and limited access to support services further intensified vulnerabilities among African American women, underscoring the urgent need for equitable intervention measures. In critical race theory, existing criminal justice and healthcare policies advocated for women and children but mortality increased for African Americans because of biases [7]. In current studies, Black women detailed about misogyny, necro-politics, inability to express experiences, and coming in second. From 1999 to 2023, African American women became overlooked by law enforcement, healthcare agencies, and community leaders. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prompted human rights, equitable protection and treatment, and dissemination of resources, but minorities fell behind [9]. Compared to white females, African Americans encountered injustices that ranged from peace and order and health. Murder and kidnapping somehow decreased for the white female population but African American women continued to suffer at the hands of intimate partners, strangers, and gangs. Gun Violence is one of the policies enacted to protect women from threats, abuses, and unnecessary use of force [9]. However, prevailing social norms inflict limitations on African American women in living a full life away from threat and mortality.

In sociopolitical research, historical events and tragedies enabled the terminology of femicide and international tribunals to address female violence and death [10]. In the international landscape, social structures and cultural practices normalized abuse, manipulation, and death toward women. In the political arena, women suffer from a lack of political leadership, community mobility, and criminal justice reform. In the feminist approach, patriarchy worsened the treatment of women, and social institutions overlooked violence to reinforce control and dogma [10]. In the 21^st century, institutions and sociological structures kept old practices as seen in how police authorities and media outlets treat women. Since the United States holds a critical position in international and national reforms, officials created strategies to address gender-based violence, exploitation, and murder [11]. The United States collaborated with international agencies and government systems to counteract gender-based violence and propagate human rights. Missing and murdered women and girls were connected to sexual exploitation, intimate partner violence, and human trafficking. Based on the report, the United States implemented and promoted policies to address the following: 1) gender disparity in the international and local arenas, 2) collaboration with media platforms and non-government agencies, 3) creation of offices through the Department of State, and 4) women and children empowerment.

4.2. Femicide and Media and Law Enforcement

The United States holds a critical position on the world stage and being a member of the United Nations, it seeks to uphold international policies, legalities, and sustainable initiatives. International strategies and frameworks provided by the United Nations aimed to eliminate gender-based crime, address root causes and implications, and obtain equity and peace for women and children [12]. The United States joined the World Health Organization and the United Nations Women in promoting the RESPECT framework to curb mortality and crime rates. The framework covered the following: 1) strengthening of relationships between government and people, 2) women and children social advocacy, 3) provision for services and resources, 4) reduction of poverty, unemployment, and hunger, 5) creation of peace and order, 6) prevention of abuses, and 7) social transformation [12]. Despite the United States’ initiatives, discrepancies still beleaguered African American women and girls in the modern period. The Missing White Women Syndrome still hounded law enforcement, media outlets, and the public, as observed in how Gabrielle Petito’s case progressed [13]. The New York Times highlighted how major newsstands and law enforcement worked day and night to resolve the missing woman’s case and revealed how women of color got ignored. Police authorities and media outlets conducted joint investigations to solve Petito’s case while the public rallied behind them. Media possessed power in oral reports and written accounts which contributed to “missing white woman syndrome” and overrepresentation [5]. Missing white women and newsworthiness go together which contributed to success in pinning down criminals and granting of justice to the bereaved. Based on statistical reports, disparities still resonated in the criminal justice system and media outlets, as shown in the data,

The data above revealed how law enforcers and media personalities become fixated on solving cases, representing white communities, and obtaining justice for victims. While the United States promulgated laws and advocacies, a disconnect occurred in the criminal justice system and media industries. In criminological analysis, the United States recorded 187,474 missing persons wherein 40.3% were women and African Americans incurred a rate of 27.7% [14]. In mainstream media, African American women encountered sensationalized stories that depicted harrowing acts of violence, intimate partner issue, and poverty-stricken environment. Media coverage continued to seek news pieces and highlight ideal victims that influenced mobility, success, and sustainability of policies and approaches. However, findings showed that media outlets wholly focused on white female victims to increase viewership, discourse, and public outcry [14]. Worthiness of news leads to public scrutiny which in turn, pressures police authorities to maximize effort and resources to solve crimes. In the critical race feminist theory, white victims mattered to law enforcement and media industries because of their attractiveness [15]. While law enforcement performed duties and standards, Black women became disposable and overlooked by the system. As evident in the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s data, 239,593 Black women went missing and only a few received media attention and public scrutiny [15]. Media’s selective performance catered to white women and people of color becomes secondary because of the circumstances surrounding them. Another startling fact pertained to police violence that resulted in the murder of African American women and girls that occurred from 2000 to 2019 [16]. Community policing and peace and order violated the Fourth Amendment because of how authorities utilized force that led to untimely deaths among African American women and children. Women and girls lost their human rights and protective mechanisms because of the partial treatment they received from agencies that were supposed to safeguard them.

4.3. Surveillance and Multidisciplinary Collaboration

Gender-based crimes require systematic monitoring, a multidisciplinary approach, and leader-agency collaboration. In the World Bank Data, the United States obtained 34^th place in femicide which revealed lapses in penal code, surveillance, root cause, legal action, and healthcare intervention [17]. Based on international dialogues and Violence Against Women (VAW) policies, the United States needs to enhance its frameworks and legalities to address the following aspects: 1) stronger definition and penal code regarding murder of women and girls—femicide, 2) strengthen data collection and management—cases, trends, victims, and perpetrators, and 3) identification of identities, intersectionality, and diverse profiles. In the current system, a lack of data regarding diverse populations and social identities inflicted gaps in the criminal justice system [17]. Social identities revealed risk factors and susceptibilities such as those found in women of color.

The federal government needs to look at the connection between missing persons, human trafficking, and domestic violence. Human trafficking pertained to socioeconomic gaps and losses experienced by women of color, especially children [18]. In the United Kingdom, collaboration comprised of government leaders, law enforcers, researchers, and medical practitioners aimed to address victims of human trafficking. Root causes ranged from poverty to lack of education and protection from legal institutions and police authorities. Criminal justice systems obtain improvements based on the following factors: 1) diversifying collaborators, 2) empowering families to report, 3) investing in resources, facilities, and technologies, and 4) media partnership. Domestic violence leads to untimely deaths among women and girls. In a survey conducted by the United States, domestic violence affected women regardless of age, social status, and racial background but inflicted more damage on children [19]. As domestic violence leads to a mortality rate, shared objectives and strategies mitigate crimes from taking place through the following: 1) partnership between police authorities and women and child organizations, 2) medical intervention, 3) media education and information dissemination, and 4) counseling and safe space. Police authorities and media outlets need to remember that murders and missing persons originate from cases that start at home or across the community. The term “working together” implies integrating women’s health, peer and professional networks, social advocacy, and media services to prevent deaths and missing person cases.

4.4. Reforms in Criminal Justice, Community Policing, and Media Reporting

Gaps and inconsistencies have been perpetrated across the United States despite proactive stances, sophisticated technologies, and police profiling. A text entitled You’re Dead—So What revealed how society, public agencies, and media platforms contributed to victim culpability [20]. Victim culpability pertained to victim blaming such as in the case of impoverished populations, drug-dependent groups, and women who entered illicit businesses. Media outlets framed people of color as associated with illegal matters. Police authorities utilize criminal profiling which focuses on African Americans, their environments, and sociocultural factors. Media attention and public outcry impacted criminal justice proceedings in homicide cases [20]. For example, if Black women die at the hands of a partner, jurors scrutinize backgrounds published by media outlets. Most Black women received negative testimonials from media outlets because of illicit activities. In intimate partner homicide, law enforcement agencies and media outlets need to immerse themselves in cross-cultural aspects, risk factors, and critical services [21]. In case reports and data trends, preventive measures consider the following: 1) history of violence, 2) latest abuse, and 3) frequency of abuse. Risk assessments conducted by law enforcement agencies strengthen systems, approaches, and discourses to close gaps in homicide cases as influenced by federal actions and policies. However, police authorities encounter disjointed responses in social policies that increase inequities experienced by female victims, especially women of color. To address these systemic issues, law enforcement should undergo mandatory bias and cultural sensitivity training to tackle racism and implicit biases. Independent oversight committees must also be established to ensure fairness and accountability in cases involving African American women and girls. Finally, creating standardized data collection systems and specialized task forces would help focus resources on unresolved cases and reduce long-standing disparities.

One way for the federal government to advocate for Black women and children is to understand the complexity of violence. Based on reports, homicide cases increased by 30% at the height of the pandemic which revealed intentions to eliminate women because of sociocultural beliefs and structures [8]. Law enforcement and media overlooked factors surrounding the killing of women and girls such as hostility, exclusivity, stereotyping, and unequal power distribution. The federal government possessed the influence and authority to resolve socioeconomic disparities and displacements which increased biases and discriminatory actions. Another approach is for the government to utilize critical information and victim-focused intervention [22]. Policies, resources, and supportive networks were already in place, but police authorities failed to understand the complexity of being a woman of color. Government actions must focus their efforts on understanding human and social capital associated with victimization. Victim empowerment originates from a government’s investment in addressing financial, logistical, and health aspects of women and girls threatened by abuse [22]. The government invested in the Lethality Assessment Program to recognize barriers among female victims. However, the program requires stronger policies and sustained support from the government to bridge information and action.

4.5. Opportunities and Sustainable Practices

It takes transformative leadership to assess socioeconomic limitations among women of color, biases from the media, and partial treatment from police authorities. In Minnesota, legislators collaborated with agencies and social organizations to create a task force to address Black femicide [23]. Respondents consider the initiative to be a work in progress as the task force addresses subjectivity, misinformation, and investigation delays. Eliminating the police’s negative view of teenage runaways, the task force integrated social media to monitor missing persons, education to understand intersectionality and culture, and strengthen community participation. In a Briefing Report, the government immersed in efforts to assess wide-scale racism, bias, and inequity in the criminal justice system [24]. Federal efforts about the exercise of rights among victims, programs directed to families, legal assistance for the bereaved, and partnerships with critical agencies. Public outcry revealed the slow and subjective processes conducted by police authorities which promoted federal actions. The foundation of the federal initiative centered on trust, community collaboration, information dissemination, and provision for protection. Federal effort consulted and collaborated with the Department of Health and Human Services to address cumulative outcomes brought about by homicide, missing persons, slow process, and systemic issues. As highlighted in a criminal justice study, government leadership provides joint effort and multidisciplinary methods to address femicide, media influence, and inequitable treatment from police officers [25]. Evidence-based strategies and proactive policies enable authorities to understand complex phenomena, sociocultural diversity, and economic woes experienced by victims.

5. Conclusions

5.1. Sociopolitical Structures

Police officers and media outlets became influenced by sociopolitical structures and historical events. African Americans came from stigmatized communities and backgrounds which increased partial treatment across agencies. Efforts must be aligned to advancing socioeconomic standing in Black-American communities. Recently, President Joe Biden signed initiatives to strengthen businesses, entrepreneurship, human rights, and police responsibility to eliminate violence, homicide, and unresolved cases [26]. Backed by the president, Black Americans, especially women receive empowerment from agencies and organizations to increase economic power, education, health, and protection from discrimination and threat. For several years, women became displaced, abused, and murdered by those in power because of structural imbalances. Police and media increased systemic issues which were counteracted by government initiatives and formal support [27]. Formal support comes from multidisciplinary groups that range from healthcare to social organizations backed by government policies and investments. Support networks become empowered by government discourses, regulations, and budget allocations.

5.2. Disparities

Law enforcement and media disparities originate from racism, generalization of stigmatized communities, sensational stories, and public attention. The government stands at the pinnacle in transforming a society that once proliferated discrimination and subjectivity. As mentioned in human behavior, discriminatory surveillance and unfair practices become eradicated through human service, sociopolitical discourse, moral leadership, and trust [28]. The federal government influences the criminal justice system, agencies, and the public to take a proactive stance in diversity, social interaction, and security. Regarding media, the government system provides regulation in addressing skewed perceptions and stories directed at Black women and girls. The United States government exercises its power to influence the media to eliminate hierarchical attitudes and preconceived notions [29]. As moral leaders, victim-blaming becomes eradicated through policy change, political discourse, and educational aspects.

5.3. Multidisciplinary collaboration

Surveillance has become a powerful tool for obtaining and analyzing trends, structures, and movements. However, sustainability comes in the form of multidisciplinary functions promoted by the government such as health and social justice initiatives, dialogues, and pathways [30]. The future of African Americans relies on effective healthcare policies to prevent violence, missing persons, and homicide cases. Health disparities and overlooked issues lead to socioeconomic woes, intimate partner abuses, and murders of Black women. The federal government must integrate diversity in policymaking and political representations to advocate for women of color.

5.4. Reforms and Opportunities

In the Briefing Report, the Department of Health and Human Services is empowered by the United States government to strengthen research, policymaking, education, and community collaboration [24]. Historical trauma, poverty, and violence perpetrate victimization, unfair treatment from authorities, and unethical actions from the media. Reforms play a key role through empirical research, evidence-based strategies, and information transparency. Victim-focused programs promoted by the federal government yield sustainable outcomes for victims and families. In recent years, women still found themselves at the crossroads because of police inaction and media portrayal but formal services and community efforts eliminate future threats [31]. Early efforts from the government addressed the complex nature of violence and homicide. Homicide and unfair treatment persisted due to a lack of research, policy, and funding. Policies provide comprehensive support, cultural sensitivity, and funding for informal groups. Research motivated agencies to understand intersectionality, culture, and inclusivity. Lastly, the government also needs to appraise existing laws such as that strengthen racism, exclusivity, and partial treatment of Black women and children [32]. In recent years, self-defense has educated Black populations to stand their ground. However, police and media possessed stigmatized views toward people of color. Black women and communities need more than self-defense since the odds are not in their favor for several years. Black women require comprehensive programs, transformative leadership, financial support, and anti-discrimination laws from the federal government to eliminate all threats before they lead to homicide.

5.5. Implications

Integration of federal support, promotion of collaborative efforts, and establishment of offices eliminate systemic inequalities. It is important to understand that homicide and missing person cases are preventable if government responses are direct and prompt. For decades, Black women suffered from deaths, losses, and unsolved cases due to inconsistent policies and programs from the government. Empirical research and evidence-based strategies mitigate disproportionality across government agencies and media outlets.

Acknowledgements

Although this project was conducted independently from August 2023 to July 2024, I would like to thank my professor from Harvard University’s Government Department, Prof. Tess, and my current undergraduate professor, Dr. Anita, and Prof. Rogers, for always being available to answer questions. I am grateful for the Harvard University Library Access to support and develop this research. I am also grateful to the researchers before me for putting forth a brilliant foundational concept that I’ve been able to test and prove in the field.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

*Independent Undergraduate Student Researcher, New York, USA.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

References