Synergetics is an interdisciplinary approach that enables examination of the self-organization of complex systems⁸. In this context, one can also discuss the emergence of a new attribute through interactions of distinct parts⁹, although the newly created quality of the emerging structure cannot be reduced to its original parts¹⁰.

The physician Hermann Haken founded this theory in 1969. He was the first to show that laser light can be explained only by self-organization phenomena¹¹.

Definition: Synergetics describes the self-organized establishment of order within systems through the behavior of their components. This term refers to systems characterized by openness, dynamic behavior, and complexity [9] .

Because synergetics suggests an initial structure when examining systems, it differentiates between macro- and micro-level phenomena [11] .

The actual system is located at the micro level; it is characterized by a high number of elements and, as a rule, has a variety of degrees of freedom. In the case of the laser (e.g., a gas discharge lamp), on a microscopic level, countless atoms or molecules are continually stimulated with electricity. The electricity functions as an external parameter or control parameter [11] .

Below the critical value, the experimental assembly operates as a standard lamp: the atoms and molecules emit random, incoherent and chaotic light waves, which include internal variables called modes [11] .

The properties of light dramatically change in a self-organizational manner when the laser reaches a point above the critical amperage. This specific value is called the “laser threshold”, which is also known as the phase transition or bifurcation in more general terms. At this level, self-organization only involves the reduction of degrees of freedom, and above this threshold, “efficiency is largely increased” [11] . The system becomes unstable through changes in the control parameters. Thus, a high number of variables that remain stable can eventually be expressed by only a single internal variable that becomes unstable. This variable, which corresponds to the emergent laser light wave, is referred to as the order parameter and determines the emission activities of all other atoms and molecules such that concentrated laser light is produced by having all atoms pulsate in full harmony. In this regard, Haken speaks of “slaving”: the unstable mode enslaves the stable mode [11] .

Within the process of self-organization, only a few elements that influence the enslavement of the system crystallize out of an entire range of elements. Thus, this slaving principle creates a new structure. These few parameters, namely, the order parameters, can be observed on a macroscopic level. Hence, the patterns or order structures of the system become apparent at this level. Whereas the initial system has a homogenous structure, broken symmetry can be observed in the emerging end system¹².

The theory of laser light is certainly only a theory of physics. This general theory can help to describe and explain self-organization processes in fields such as biology, medicine, sociology, psychology, and economics.

The theory of self-organization is a powerful alternative to the typical, traditional mechanistic view that can still be found in economics to some extent [7] .

Figure 1 illustrates the concept of synergetics.

A prerequisite for the self-organization process is that the system must be an open system because a system can only be self-organizing if power is added externally, as illustrated by the example of lasers. Similarly, a pendulum can swing permanently only if energy is consistently added to it. This added energy does not determine the particular behavior of the system or the movement (see, for example, the movement of a pendulum), but without energy the movement and the dynamics of the system would come to an end.

In short, only open systems can create self-organized evolutionary structures, as all other systems die of heat

exhaustion [14] . One can also speak about control parameters in this context, although they can at most symbolize unspecific control by the environment [15] . Ultimately, such parameters do not determine the order structure, but they enable it because they exert influence on the microscopic level by controlling the energy supply. Because of the mutual interactions, however, there is interplay between the order parameters and the control parameters. The patterns created can be destabilized if the control parameters are changed, and this change leads to new order parameters. Which possible behavior could ultimately become an order parameter cannot be foreseen because the slightest change in the initial conditions can lead to completely different order parameters. This concept is known as the “butterfly effect” and can be formulated as follows: an insignificant flap of a butterfly’s wings in Hong Kong could eventually create a tornado in New York.

The migration of birds toward their winter quarters is a suitable example for applying the idea of synergetics. Self-organization implies the reduction of the degrees of freedom on the micro level. Thus, each bird could theoretically choose an individual flight route, but this occurrence is not observed in nature. Instead, migratory birds create flocks using a process of self-organization. Among the abundance of parameters that could influence the system of the flock of birds, the parameters that do influence the self-organization of the system become apparent. These few parameters are called order parameters and can be observed on a macro level. In the case of a flock of birds, this parameter could be the birds’ wing shape or the size of the birds. The distance between the birds and their response behavior as well as the energetic effect of the slipstream derived from such parameters. Hence, a formation of the system’s components (i.e., the birds in this case) is developed on the macro level. The overall pattern of the flock makes the order structure (i.e., the pattern of the system) visible. The described flock intelligence is a simple form of self-organization based on three rules that each bird follows [16] :

• Staying together: Attempt to move toward the center of the flock.

• Separation: Move outward as soon as someone becomes too close.

• Alignment: Move just as your direct neighbor does.

Thus, the group acts without any central control because every bird is autarkic and the flock operates dynamically in a self-organized (synergetic) manner. Furthermore, flocks are flexible and show a high degree of adaptation to different conditions (e.g., mountains, houses, seas). Moreover, flocks are also quite robust when individual birds stray. As a result, the order of a flock is not dependent on any single bird [17] .

The two systems S₁ and S₂ will be examined by means of an example. Suppose that system S₁ is a national economy without governmental activities, whereas system S₂ represents the government. The states of the systems can then be characterized by a variety of modes.

Thus, whereas system S₁ can be described by the balance of payments, the unemployment rate, the level of prices, interest rates, gross domestic product, and other features, system S₂ can be described by features that include its institutions, jurisdiction, national expenditures, inland revenues, subsidies, and transfer payments.

Furthermore, it is expected that system S₂ can influence system S₁ through certain forces: indirect taxes could be raised in system S₂ to eliminate, for example, financial difficulties. This tax increase would evoke a change in the status of system S₁. For example, the tax increase could have an unwanted crowding-out effect in S₁. If S₂ does not intervene in S₁ by changing its parameters and if the tax increase is nullified, then S₁ will return to its initial state. Thus, the economic fluctuation triggered by the government in this example would be revoked. In the language of synergetics, system S₂ organized system S₁.

Again, it must be emphasized that synergetics is tailored to self-organization. Hence, it is wise to interpret all the forces that influence system S₁ as part of the overall system [12] . For this reason, the overall system S = S₁S₂, i.e., the system of the national economy with governmental activities will be considered. Thus, S is self-orga- nizing such that the influence of sub-system S₂ on sub-system S₁ represents internal forces¹³.

However, a problem arises when describing self-organizing systems: as a rule, complex systems of this type can be described only with a large number of variables and, hence, only by a comprehensive system of equations. For this reason, a mathematical technique is used: the stable variable is described directly by unstable order parameters. Generally, many stable variables and several unstable variables appear. Therefore, S₁ follows the path of S₂ instantaneously. As a result, we say that system S₂ has enslaved S₁ (through the slaving principle). Both the number of degrees of freedom and the complexity can be reduced through this procedure. As a result, a new condition is established and can be expressed by relatively few order parameters.

The term “slaving principle” is used in a completely value-free manner in synergetics; it is not a compulsory measure triggered by relevant actors¹⁴.

Using a particular equation-system¹⁵, Haken compared the results derived from a computer calculation with the calculated results on the basis of the slaving principle. The outcome reveals that for a certain period, a precise level of conformity can be shown; however, a sudden discrepancy occurs that “remains for the rest of the time” [12] . In this manner, Haken showed that if the slaving principle fails and if the former stable solution is destabilized by changing the control parameters, then irregular, chaotic movements appear. Thus, chaos in a system is closely linked to the failure of the slaving principle¹⁶.

Examining systems from a synergetic perspective as described above requires a new perspective indicating that it is generally impossible to completely control a complex system such as the economy of a nation; because even minor interventions result in unpredictable consequences (the butterfly effect). The failure of the anticyclical fiscal policy of the federal government of Germany in the 1970s or the even more extreme failure of the command economy in the Eastern European states constitute empirical evidence of such behavior. Basically, every type of governmental interference in the economic processes of a market (regardless of the motive) can lead to failure if the intent is to provide more parameters than necessary for the functioning of the system¹⁷.

Von Hayek noted that “enabling an extensive division of labor and continuously adapting the economic action to millions of facts and incidents” [1] is the great achievement of the market.

According to Haken, all internal variables can be expressed by order parameters (see Ch. 2). Hence, all stable modes would be eliminated, and only the unstable modes (i.e., the order parameters) would thus be relevant. Thus, modes are presumed. New system properties are created through enslavement. But the question of how those characteristics develop at the point of phase transition (i.e., the point at which the condition of the system changes) and in what relation the old condition stands to the new condition has not yet been resolved. In synergetics, the old structure is not depicted in the new structure, and hence, topological variation is lacking.

According to the synergetics-model, there is no finished construction plan on the micro level of a system; there is merely an initial point for the evolution of a figure. Its formation energy is added from outside by means of a control parameter, which serves as a “creatio ex nihilo” through feedback and gradually surfaces as a dynamic structure on the macro level by means of order parameters. The exciting aspect of the synergetic interpretation of national economies is that complex systems can be generated only in a self-organizational manner (see Ch. 3).

Synergetics is a theory of self-organization that lacks a global stability criterion. Despite this critique, synergetics is generally an adequate approach that can be used to sufficiently describe and analyze self-organizing systems, such as economic systems that are based on free market principles. Moreover, it has been proven by Haken that at the threshold, “when self-organization takes place, the efficiency jumps dramatically” [11] .

For these reasons and the mentioned butterfly effect, it is generally impossible to control a complex system such as the economy of a nation because even minor interventions can have unpredictable consequences in the long term.

The presented insight from the field of synergetics (e.g., with regard to the market system) do not necessarily lead to incompatibility between “social justice” and “freedom”, as one could easily presume. Nonetheless, these observations can be used to visualize and apply the market economy’s self-organizational forces of freedom, which are consistently diminished by excessive governmental interference to the detriment of all citizens.

The study of complex systems does not come to an end by means of synergetics. On the contrary, this article provides only an initial introduction to the topic. Nevertheless, there is still a lot of room for research in order to better understand and judge complex systems and to recognize valid options for intervention.