The HM16 ether model, originally proposed by the present authors in 2016 [1] , will be the starting point for the present analysis, which will provide new developments in the model in terms of the composition, and behaviour and effect of ether in nature and in physics.

We consider in our HM16 model that in nature, all microparticles (MPs) have either a positive or a negative electric charge, denoted MP⁺ and MP⁻. However, in the general case in which the MP sign (+ or −) is not important, we will utilize the simple notation MP in the text, for both MP⁺ and MP⁻. In addition, it is accepted in physics that at the macro scale, MP⁺ and MP⁻ are in parity, or even in pairs, and matter is neutral in nature.

To date, in physics, the nature of positive +q and negative −q electric charges has been neither defined nor explained. Furthermore, it has not been justified physically and materially.

In the following sections, we will initially present the modelling of the physical nature of the electric charge by highlighting new properties of the HM16 model of ether and of MPs, related to electric charges.

The paper brings in some novelties, such as the mechanical percussion nature of corrected electric forces F_CC, or the many simultaneous paths in ether of electric force F_CC transmission from close to closer distances, in contrast to the classical Coulomb force F_C transmitted at a distance.

The main new contribution of the paper is the analytical demonstration that the F_CC forces decrease very slow with the distance l, thus justifying the new term lnr, in contrast to the classical Coulomb force F_C which decreases with distance.

But this spatial effect of the ether leads at a limit to 1.0 in the decrease of the F_P forces ratio when doubling the distance l, in contrast to Coulomb’s F_C forces whose ratio decreases to 0.25 with doubling l.

Accordingly, the necessity of including the term lnr in the F_CC force, which too is capped to 1.0 for doubling l, at long distances, was demonstrated.

In all the following graphical representations of space filled with ether, we will also indicate the indispensable reference frame (RF), usually as a Cartesian Oxyz frame, attached to a certain MP immovable in ether or to a certain cell of the ether (EC). Hence any Oxyz frame will be an absolute RF, referring to the ether.

Since we admit that the electric charge is intimately linked to MPs, the electric charge can be explained by the composition and functioning of MPs in the HM16 ether model.

In the following analysis, we will utilize the same abbreviations used in [1] , which will be redefined in this section as follows.

HM16 is our ether model initiated in 2016, MP stands for microparticle, SMP for submicroparticle, ESMP for a especial submicroparticle, RF for the reference frame, EC for ether cells, EP for etheron particles, FV for fundamental vibrations in ether, PV for particle vibrations, MB for a material body, F_CC for the corrected/completed Coulomb force, F_C for the classical Coulomb electric force, p_i for individual percussion forces, f_i for continue force from percussions, F_P for the resultant percussion force, F_N for the classical Newtonian gravitational force, F_DC for the force between two electrical dipoles, r_F for F_s forces ratio at doubled distances, ε and γ for linear and angular deformations/strains and σ and τ for normal and tangential efforts/stresses;

An MP which is currently considered electrically neutral, such as a neutron, in fact comprises the MPs (or submicroparticles (SMPs)) MP⁺ and MP⁻, with compensatory positive (+q) and negative (−q) electric charges, resulting in the common neutral bodies. In the following text, charge refers only to electric charge.

A first variant of the mode of operation of MPs considers the Type A HM16 ether model in terms of the crystalline disposition of etherons, as defined in [1] , in which the specific vibrational/vortex model of an MP is considered as a basic phenomenon which transmits its vibrations to the surrounding crystalline network of etherons and accordingly, to other MPs (Figure 1).

A second variant of MPs’ mode of operation is given by the Type B HM16 model of ether, in the form of a fluid as defined in [1] , in which the flow/circulation of etheron particles (EPs) between different MPs occurs during the absorption or emission of ether particles or ether cells (ECs) by any MP. The +q and −q electric charges are given here by the debit of the fluid emitted or absorbed by specific MPs.

The Type A HM16 ether model is the main focus of the present analysis.

Of course, the detailed mechanisms developed between ether components and the forces acting between MPs, which will be presented and utilized in the next part of this paper, are only hypothesized, because until now it has not been possible to observe or directly measure them at their very small scale.

However, our HM16 ether model and its functioning is based on, and is in agreement with, actual existing experimental data from physics concerning the behaviour of matter and radiation at an observable scale.

Any such hypothesis will be confirmed in physics, when the results correspond to the real behaviour of matter and to the structure/composition of radiation at an observable scale.

Furthermore, as the purpose of this study, we will show that the results yielded by our HM16B model will be in accordance with the results of physical experiments. Accordingly, our initial hypothesis concerning the HM16 ether model will be confirmed.

It should be noted, as in [1] , that the first-order components of HM16 ether, namely the ether particles themselves, are of two types: EPα and EPβ. These are the α and β etherons, which are grouped into the elemental cells (ECs) of ether, with at least four etherons (tetrahedrons) or as is more justified by volume symmetry, with eight etherons (cubes).

Ether is considered to be in its natural, undisturbed state, thus presenting no deformations/displacements but containing the fundamental vibrations (FVs) induced by all existing MPs, which are considered immobile/fixed in space at the starting moment of any analysis.

We acknowledge that the MPs in ether constitute physical support for the electric charges +q and −q and we refer to them as MP⁺ and MP⁻ respectively.

Firstly, in the HM16 ether model, any MP⁺ or MP⁻ contains a group of vibrating EPs or ECs exhibiting their own PV⁺ or PV⁻ vibrations, with their specific sign pattern (+/−) and with their own frequency ω, where PV signifies an internal particle vibration (Figure 1).

Furthermore, the different actions of PV⁺ and PV⁻ produced by MP⁺ and MP⁻ respectively, create corresponding FVs in the surrounding ether, i.e. FV⁺ and FV⁻.

Any MP1 will produce its own FVs in ether, which travel away from the MP1 (Figure 1) and are eventually transmitted to all the other MPs in the ether from across the universe, according to the Huygens principle for vibrations.

We should state that, similarly to the claims made in section III of [1] , the FVs of the HM16 ether comprise the linear specific (unitary) deformations ε and the angular specific (unitary) distortions γ, of the crystalline spatial net of ECs. Both ε and γ are periodic or pulsatory deformations, with frequency ν corresponding to the pulsation ω of the MPs’ rotations or oscillations. These specific deformations ε and γ of a body, are known in mechanics as strains.

In the present analysis, we will discuss only the plane problem of deformations or of the strains ε and γ. Although in the general analysis of the HM16 ether model we are dealing with a spatial problem, in which the plane deformations ε and γ are replaced by the three-dimensional spatial tensors of deformations ε and γ, this does not diminish the utility of studying the plane problem, which can then be generalized.

These vibrations in ether FV⁺ and FV⁻ will create the effect and mode of interaction between MPs, as the electrical forces, which are specific to MP⁺ and different to MP⁻ (Figure 2).

This difference in the behaviour of MP⁺ and MP⁻ may, in principle, be manifested by the sense of the ε deformation (elongation +ε or compression −ε) and by the sense of the γ rotation (clockwise +γ or anticlockwise −γ), which are deformations produced in the ether’s spatial net of ECs, under the effect of FV⁺ and FV⁻ as created by MP⁺ or MP⁻.

This specific behaviour of MP⁺ or MP⁻ is illustrated in Figure 3, which presents MP⁺ and MP⁻ disposed in opposition on a principal diagonal D1, i.e. in the two opposing quadrants of a Cartesian Oxyz reference system.

There, MP⁺ manifests its own vibrations PV⁺, with a frequency ν (or pulsation ω) consisting of strain couples +ε and +γ along +D1, and similarly MP⁻ manifests its own PV⁻ consisting of the strain couples +ε and −γ along +D1 (or couples −ε and +γ along D1) (Figure 3).

Then, MPs in contact with surrounding ECs will transmit and create FVs, via their own PVs.

The FVs in the ether are also of two types: FV⁺ representing strain couples with the same sign (+ε and +γ or −ε and −γ) and FV⁻ representing strain pairs with opposite sign (+ε and −γ or −ε and +γ).

Accordingly, in the HM16 ether model, the specific properties of electric charges +q and −q are intrinsically attached to MP⁺ and to MP⁻ by their specific mode of vibration PV⁺ or PV⁻ manifested mechanically.

The detailed mechanics of PVs (as oscillations, vortexes or other kinds of movements) is not yet known, but it is not strictly necessary here.

Concerning the mechanism of the transmission of vibrations of the electrical force F_CC between electrically charged MPs via the ether, we advance here a hypothesis regarding the manifestation and continuous action of percussion forces p_i between the involved physical objects considered to be in direct contact (MPs, ECs), in which force transmissions are produced from close to closer distances (and not at a distance), as will be presented in the next section of this paper.

If an MP1 is present at a point in the ether and an MP2 is found in the area (Figure 2), the MP2 will be subjected over its entire external surface to a contact of FVs through the ECs, caused by MP1.

This contact action appears because the vibrating ECs of ether, around MP2, have direct contact with the MP2 surface and as such will create normal stresses σ (two−way stresses, i.e. −σ compression and +σ stretching) and tangential stresses τ (with two senses +τ and −τ) over the entire surface of the MP2 (Figure 2), with a resultant force +f or −f upon a unit area. Obviously, the phenomenon is similar for MP1 when the cause is an MP2.

In HM16, FVs caused by an MP⁺ will create vectors (tensors in 3D) of the stresses σ and τ (or of the resultant force f) on the unit surface of an MP, disposed in the opposite directions to the σ and τ stresses (or force f) caused on the same MP unit surface by an MP⁻.

Adding the two types of stress vectors (tensors) σ and τ (or the resultant f) upon the whole surface of an MP will result in a +F force of attraction or a −F force of repulsion (Figure 2, Figure 3) between the two types of MPs, depending on whether they have identical or opposite electric charges +q or −q.

Accordingly, in HM16, in the presence of MP⁺ (Figure 2, Figure 3), the vectors of the strains ε and γ produced in the ether, as well as the resultant vectors of the stresses σ and τ (or resultant f) acting on the MP⁻ surface, will have opposite senses, resulting in an attraction force +F on this MP⁻, while the same +F force will be simultaneously applied to the MP⁺.

Regarding the resultant force caused by vibrational waves starting from two MPs of the same sign (MP⁺ and MP⁺ or MP⁻ and MP⁻), the vectors of the strains ε and γ and the vectors of the stresses σ and τ (or resultant f) will have the same senses (Figure 2, Figure 3). In turn, there will be a repulsive force −F on the second MP (MP⁺/MP⁻), while the same repulsive force −F will appear on the first MP at the same time.

Consequently, the difference in the behaviour of interactions between MP⁻ and MP⁺ is manifested according to the above presentation.

However, it is possible that between MPs of the same sign, attraction forces arise (and between the MPs of opposite signs, repulsion forces appear) according to the completed law of F_CC force [2] . For these forces, there will be different formulas, that depend on the distance l_i between the MPs or between the material bodies (MBs).

However, these interaction forces, having the opposite sense to those usually currently considered, will not change the physical behaviour of the MPs, which possess a property equivalent to the actual sign of the electric charge.

The above presentation can be considered to be the mechanism of the appearance and manifestation of electric charges +q and −q. They are, in fact, intrinsic properties of MPs and of the ether.

MPs⁺ and MPs⁻ produce in ether some specific FV⁺ or FV⁻ which acts upon other MPs⁻ and MPs⁺. Depending on these FVs, the interaction force F_CC results between MPs.

Today, in physics, the Coulomb force F_C is considered to be a manifestation of interaction at distance between the so-called electric charges +q and −q. However, these charges do not exist as physical entities, only as manifestations of specific vibrations of MPs and of the HM16 ether model (Figure 3).

Note that the sense of the F_DC force between two electric dipoles will always be attraction [2] , resulting in a gravitational pull exerted by the F_DC via the corrected F_CC force given in Euation (21) in [3] .

To the best of our knowledge, in no classical analysis of electricity [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] is there any discussion of the possibility that the Coulomb forces F_C could, in fact, be the result of the unitary forces σ or τ, which might act on the surface of MPs due to ε or γ deformations of the ether.

We note that in the classical approach, considering the Coulomb electric interaction between two MBs or MPs endowed with electric charges ±q, only the existence of concentrated F_C forces of the Coulomb type are acknowledged.

It is also classically understood that F_C forces appear and act at a distance instantly and mutually between MB1 and MB2, with the sense of the action provided by the electric charge signs ±q. The F_C force is considered to be a linear, one-directional vector, which is transmitted directly on a straight line between MB1 and MB2.

We observe that, similar to the case of the electric force, in the case of Newtonian gravitational interaction, the gravitational force F_N is classically considered to act between two MBs. It is acknowledged that the force F_N is also a focused force, the size of which is a function of the masses m of the bodies and of the distance 1/r² [7] [8] .

However, in our analysis of the presence of HM16 ether, we consider that the cause of F_C forces is the appearance of the unitary stresses σ and τ acting on the entire surface of an MP2 (Figure 2). Furthermore, the σ and τ stresses do not occur instantly at a distance but are the result of the specific ε and γ deformations of the ECs around the MP2. In addition, ε, γ strains are produced by FVs from ether, caused by the PVs vibrating permanently inside the corresponding MP1, whose strains ε and γ are permanently transmitted by the MP1 directly to the ether as FVs.

In this case, in the presence of HM16 FVs in the ether, they neither occur nor are transmitted between MP1 and MP2 in the form of a single straight vector of the F_C type. In fact, these fundamental waves/FVs are transmitted in the form of a spatial phenomenon, which is present around any MP in the form of spatial vibrations/waves advancing from MP1 in all directions in space at a speed c_f (Figure 2). The FVs are transmitted through the material structure as ECs of the HM16 ether, starting from any existing MP_i and continuing according to the Huygens principle into the whole ether present in the whole of space, which in this case is considered to be Euclidean space.

Moreover, the classical transmission of F_C as a linear vector from MP1 directly to the destination (MP2) cannot occur, because it is highly likely that the F_C straight line will encounter another MP, or even several MPs, existing in any MBs. Furthermore, such a classical type straightforward F_C force in the form of a straight line (linear vector) cannot bypass an obstacle, or even an MP. As a result of bypassing an MB, the F_C force can no longer be considered to be a linear vector or a straight line.

Due to the above situation, the spatial transmission of F_CC in the form of spatial FVs, in terms of ether volume, prompts an additional argument.

In fact, the ε and γ deformations of the ether acting on MP2 are caused by the corresponding MP1 itself. Furthermore, MP1 is in an area of the ether where a quantity of energy (ΔE) has accumulated, which is manifested in the production of its own PVs as vortexes/oscillations in the EC group in the volume of the MP1 (Figures 1-3).

These PV vibrations in the EC group constituting the MP1 may in fact be periodic deformations (or even rotations/whirlpools) inside these ECs from MP1, of type ε_p and γ_p and with frequency ω (Figures 1-3). They are similar to the two types of specific deformations in compact MBs, known in mechanics as ε_m and γ_m. However, ε_p and γ_p do not transmit energy like ε_m and γ_m, owing to the ether’s special (ideal) properties.

Meanwhile, MP1, by being in intimate contact with ether, precisely conveys its vibrations to it as ε_p and γ_p deformations, which will create periodic ε and γ deformations in the ECs of the adjacent ether (Figure 2, Figure 3). The ε and γ deformations of ether will have an amplitude that may be different from that of ε_p and γ_p from the MP, but they will have their own preserved frequency ω across the entire network of the surrounding ECs.

It follows that these ε and γ deformations in the whole EC network are continuously present over time, as long as there exists an MP1 at their origin and no energy consumption/transmission is involved. In addition, these ε and γ deformations in ether can only be transmitted from near to near in the whole three-dimensional ether network, with a fundamental speed c_f given by ether’s physical properties. These properties are currently unknown, but we only can suppose they are the properties of an ideal body having an extremely high modulus E and an extremely low density ρ, consequently resulting in a wave speed c_f that is extremely high, in our estimate.

At the same time, it is likely that in the fixed ether cell/particle (EC/EP) network, ε and γ deformations can only be produced in quantum terms, by altering the positions of ECs/EPs in the ether only in jumps of Δx, Δy and Δz. These jumps can only take place between fixed EC/EP positions in the primary ether network (Figure 2, Figure 3), or possibly between intermediate positions in the second−order ether network [1] .

Such a primary network is considered to be fixed, with stable EC positions in space, including in the fixed Oxyz reference frame (Figure 2, Figure 3), and permanent in time if disturbing factors do not occur.

Now, we consider such an etheric network with a given point P2, situated upon an MP2 surface (Figure 2). At time t at P2, the FVs arise from one, two or more sources (MP1a, MP1b, MP1c, etc.), located in the area in approximately the same direction (Figure 2). Then, local vibrational deformations ε and γ(ω) of the ether will appear at P2. At the point P2 at which these vibrations arrive on the MP2 surface, we can say that the FVs have reached their end point or terminus point. Here, the interesting, useful deformations ε and γ(ω) can only be those in the last layer of ECs in direct contact with the surface of the MP2, caused by all MP1s existing in the considered direction (Figure 2).

The P2 terminus point of the FVs’ vibration paths can only be located at the point of contact of FV1 with an MP2 surface. For the MP2, the effect of the ε and γ(ω) deformations in the surrounding ether will be manifested by the MP2’s own EC deformations, i.e., ε_p and γ_p. These deformations imply a modification of the stress distribution σ, τ on the surface of the MP2, resulting in the F_P type of interaction force described in Section 4, as a result of these stresses. Note that this F_P force is the effect of FV1 through σ and τ, appearing on the entire outer surface of the MP2.

However, if the point P3 is located anywhere in the ether network in an area in which there is no MP (Figure 2), the path of FV1 will not have P3 as an end point, and so the FV1 waves will continue beyond P3. Beyond P3, there will be a continuation of the FV1 vibration transmission and of the ε and γ(ω) ether deformation. Accordingly, at the P3 point, there is no longer an end-point effect of the deformation, as in the case of P2.

Meanwhile, at the P3 point, which is not a terminus point, the continuation of the waveform path of FVs and the ε and γ(ω) deformations of ether can be pursued according to the Huygens principle, which also applies to ether, as shown in Section 5.

This is because the ether constitutes a special, albeit material, structure, present in all space, so that anywhere there is a P3 free point, where an FV1 arrives, the Huygens principle of waves can be applied [7] [8] . According to the Huygens principle, the point P3 becomes a source of a secondary vibration FV1’ of the ether, which has the same nature as FV1 but moves only in the forward direction.

However, if at the point P3 a second vibration FV2 arrives concomitantly with FV1, the travel direction of which makes an angle α with the direction of FV1 (Figure 2), it is logical that in P3, a certain effect or phenomenon of special interference of the Huygens type appears, in which both FV1 and FV2 will have an effect upon the ether, as will be shown in Section 4.

The FVs produced by all other MPs in the ether of the universe, including those of MP1 (Figures 1-3), act upon MP2.

Any of these FVs must be considered to act on the point P2 on the surface S of MP2, via the strains ε(ω) and γ(ω), which create the stresses σ and τ (Figure 2, Figure 3). However, it must be stated that the principle of the superposition of effects is valid, meaning that we can separately analyse the effects of MP1 (or any MP_i) upon MP2.

We can consider the plane problem further, even though the stress phenomenon occurs in space (Figure 4).

In fact, on the entire outer surface S of MP2, there will be variations in stresses σ and τ, due to the differences in strains ε(ω) and γ(ω), which are precisely created on the surface S of MP2 by the action of the FVs of the ether produced by MP1.

We can consider the action of any FV waves on PM2, by exerting small percussions p_i with the FV frequency(pulsation) ν(ω) (Figure 4). The percussions p_i are the results of the variations in the stresses σ and τ produced by any vibrating ECs, due to the FVs of the ether, consisting of the deformations ε(ω) and γ(ω) with frequency/pulsation ν/ω of the FVs.

However, we consider that the small percussions p_i of an EC, act with the frequency ν of the FVs (Figure 4). If the frequency of an FV is ν, the EC and the produced p_i will act ν times per second, and so the percussions p_i, which are discrete in time, will result in a continuous equivalent force f_i of an EC, given by the equation

p i = 1 ν f i (0)

Physically, the magnitude of the percussion force p_i will be given by the square of the amplitude (A_m)² of the displacement of the EC of the ether, at the time of the EC collision with MP2 (Figure 4). This is similar to the vibration energy of a harmonic oscillator. The magnitude of p_i will also depend on the distance l between MP1 and MP2, with a physically justifiable variation, along with the inverse of the square of the distance l², as in Coulomb’s F_C force Equation (1) in [1] .

p i = k e ( A m ) 2 l 2 (1)

In Equation (1), k_e is an elastic coefficient of the type of Hooke’s modulus E from the field of mechanics:

σ = E ε or E = σ / ε (2)

showing the proportionality between p_i and the amplitude A_m. It follows that the measurement unit (in SI) of k_e will be

[ k e ] = [ p i ] [ l 2 ] [ A m ] 2 = N ⋅ s ⋅ m 2 m 2 = N ⋅ s (2a)

It follows that the measurement unit (in SI) of E from Equation (2) will be:

[ E ] = [ σ ] [ ε ] = N / m 2 − = N / m 2 (2b)

The unitary force f_i given by an EC, which is considered to be a continuous force in time resulting from the percussions p_i from an EC upon a MP, will be given by introducing (1) into (0), resulting in:

f i = ν p i = ν k e ( A m ) 2 l 2 (2c)

We will make an approximate assessment of the force f_i by adopting a possible value for the elastic constant k_e from Equation (1). We do this by utilizing its similarity to the value of the elastic coefficient E in Hooke’s law for a solid crystalline body (closest to the behaviour of the Type A ether in [1] ).

For steel, we have the following value from mechanics.

E ≈ 2 × 10 11 N / m 2 (2d)

Now, it follows that in Equation (2c) the expression with the same measurement unit (in SI) as E in (2b) will be

[ υ k e l 2 ] = [ f i ] [ ( A m ) 2 ] = N m 2 = [ E ′ ] (3)

From Equations (2a) and (3) we find the equivalence of terms.

k e = E ′ l 2 υ (3a)

We obtain a value of the ether modulus E ′ of about three orders of magnitude greater than that for steel from Equation (2d):

E ′ = 10 3 × E = 10 3 × 2 × 10 11 N / m 2 ≈ 2 × 10 14 N / m 2 (3b)

1). The case of astronomical distances. Now, we substitute in (3a) an astronomical distance l = 10⁷ m, and a frequency for the FVs approximately the same as for γ rays, i.e. ν = 10²² Hz, obtaining:

k e = 2 × 10 14 ( 10 7 ) 2 10 22 = 2 × 10 6 N ⋅ s (3c)

Here, we must consider the spatial problem of MP1 and MP2, with f_i representing the modulus of a spatial vector f i ¯ , oriented normally at the sphere surface of MP2 at any point.

The resultant force F_P given by the percussions produced by all the ECs in contact with MP2, with a total number of n percussions acting permanently in time on the sphere surface S of MP2 (Figure 4), will be the resultant sum of vectors f i ¯ oriented normally on the entire surface S of MP2.

Let us calculate approximately the number n of ECs, for a diameter d₁, acting from the direction of MP1 on MP2 with diameter d₂ (Figure 4). We consider that the relevant area for the number n of ECs in contact with MP2, is that of the spheres of MP2 and that of the large circle of the EC. This can be calculated as the ratio of the spherical surface S of MP2 in contact with ECs and the area s of the large circle around the EC sphere.

n = S MP 2 s CE = π d 2 2 1 / 4 π d 1 2 = 4 d 2 2 d 1 2 (4)

The ECs are located with distances between them of approximately 2d₁. We consider that the diameter d₁ of an EC is d₁ = b_e = 10⁻²⁷ m, according to [1] . We consider that the diameter of an electron/proton MP is d₂ = 10⁻¹⁵ m. Entering these values into (4) results in the following number (pcs) of ECs in contact.

n = 4 ( 10 − 15 ) 2 ( 2 × 10 − 27 ) 2 = 4 10 − 30 4 × 10 − 54 = 10 24 pcs (4a)

We will consider that the FV amplitude A_m is of the order of 10⁻³ d₁, similar to the working strain ε in the mechanics of solids.

The effects of percussions p_i (and f_i) acting at 360˚ will be given by their projections on the Ox axis f_ix, which gives a mean projection angle of 45˚, resulting in

f i x = f i cos 45 ∘ = f i ⋅ 0.71 (4b)

However, f_ix acts in two senses on the Ox axis, giving a distribution of approximately +50% and −50% in the two senses. The forces +f_ix are given by the distance l₀ while the forces −f_ix are given by the distance (l₀ + d₁). We can obtain from Equations (4b) and (2c):

f i 0 = 0.71 ν g l 2 with g = k e ( A m ) 2 (4c)

g = 2 × 10 6 ( 10 − 3 × 10 − 27 ) 2 = 2 × 10 − 54 N ⋅ s ⋅ m 2 (4d)

Using an astronomical distance l₀ = 10⁷ m we can obtain from Equations (4b), (4c) and (4d):

1 0.71 f i 0 = 2 × 10 22 × 10 − 54 ( 10 7 ) 2 = 2 × 10 − 32 ( 10 7 ) 2 N (4e)

1 0.71 f i 1 = 2 × 10 22 × 10 − 54 ( 10 7 + 10 − 15 ) 2 = 2 × 10 − 32 ( 10 7 + 10 − 15 ) 2 N (4f)

Hence the net force is given by the difference of the forces from Equations (4e) and (4f):

Δ f i = f i 1 − f i 0 = 0.71 × 2 × 10 − 32 [ 1 ( 10 7 + 10 − 15 ) 2 − 1 ( 10 7 ) 2 ] (5)

Δ f i = f i 1 − f i 0 = 0.71 × 2 × 10 − 32 ( 10 7 ) 2 − ( 10 7 + 10 − 15 ) 2 ( 10 7 ) 2 ( 10 7 + 10 − 15 ) 2 = 0.71 × 2 × 10 − 32 10 14 − 10 14 − 2 × 10 7 × 10 − 15 − 10 − 30 10 14 ( 10 14 + 2 × 10 7 × 10 − 15 + 10 − 30 ) (5a)

Δ f i = f i 1 − f i 0 ≈ 0.71 × 2 × 10 − 32 × − 2 × 10 7 × 10 − 15 10 14 × 10 14 = − 0.71 × 2 × 10 − 32 × 2 × 10 − 8 10 28 = − 2.84 × 10 − 68 N (5b)

The total force of interaction F_P upon an MP, given by the net percussions Δf_i of all the ECs around it, can be calculated from Equations (4a) and (5b).

F P = n × Δ f i = − 10 24 × 2.84 × 10 − 68 = − 2.84 × 10 − 44 N (6)

For comparison, we will calculate the classical Coulomb force F_C, using Equation (1) of [1] . In a situation in which MP2 has a charge +e and MP1 has a charge −e, located at a distance of l = 10⁷ m, this results in:

F c = − ( 1 e ) 2 4 π × 8.85 × 10 − 12 × l 2 = − ( 1.6 × 10 − 19 ) 2 4 π × 8.85 × 10 − 12 × ( 10 7 ) 2 = − 2.30 × 10 − 42 N (6a)

It is noted that in Equations (6) and (6a), the two forces F_P and F_C were obtained with values that were not equal but close, with F_P < F_C.

This can also be seen by considering that the value of F_P obtained in (6) is the force resulting from only one electric interaction path l_i out of multiple interaction paths and multiple corresponding forces F_Pi, as will be seen in Section 5.

The difference is also due to the approximations of the physical parameters of ether and of the simplified forces f_i, made in the above numerical calculation.

2). The case of a laboratory distance. Now, we substitute in Equation (3a) a laboratory distance l = 10⁻¹ m and the same frequency for the FVs, and we obtain

k e = 2 × 10 14 ( 10 − 1 ) 2 10 22 = 2 × 10 − 10 N ⋅ s (7)

From Equations (4c) and (7) we obtain:

g = 2 × 10 − 10 ( 10 − 3 × 10 − 27 ) 2 = 2 × 10 − 70 N ⋅ s ⋅ m 2 (7b)

With a laboratory distance l₀ = 10⁻¹ m we can obtain from Equations (4e), (4f) and (7b):

1 0.71 f i 0 = 2 × 10 22 × 10 − 70 ( 10 − 1 ) 2 = 2 × 10 − 48 ( 10 − 1 ) 2 N (8a)

1 0.71 f i 1 = 2 × 10 22 × 10 − 70 ( 10 − 1 + 10 − 15 ) 2 = 2 × 10 − 48 ( 10 − 1 + 10 − 15 ) 2 N (8b)

Hence, the net force Δf_i given by the difference of the forces f_i above, will be:

Δ f i = f i 1 − f i 0 = 0.71 × 2 × 10 − 48 [ 1 ( 10 − 1 + 10 − 15 ) 2 − 1 ( 10 − 1 ) 2 ] (9)

Δ f i = f i 1 − f i 0 = 0.71 × 2 × 10 − 48 ( 10 − 1 ) 2 − ( 10 − 1 + 10 − 15 ) 2 ( 10 − 1 ) 2 ( 10 − 1 + 10 − 15 ) 2 = 0.71 × 2 × 10 − 48 ( 10 − 1 ) 2 − ( 10 − 1 ) 2 − 2 × 10 − 1 × 10 − 15 − 10 − 30 10 − 2 ( 10 − 2 + 2 × 10 − 1 × 10 − 15 + 10 − 30 ) (9b)

Δ f i = f i 1 − f i 0 ≈ 0.71 × 2 × 10 − 48 × − 2 × 10 − 1 × 10 − 15 10 − 2 × 10 − 2 = − 0.71 × 2 × 2 × 10 − 48 × 10 − 16 10 − 4 = − 2.84 × 10 − 60 N (9c)

The total force of interaction F_P upon an MP, given by the net percussions Δf_i of all the ECs around it, can be calculated from Equations (4a) and (9c).

F P = n × Δ f i = − 10 24 × 2.84 × 10 − 60 = − 2.84 × 10 − 36 N (10)

For comparison, we will calculate the classical Coulomb force F_C, using Equation (1) of [1] . In a situation in which MP2 has a charge +e and MP1 has a charge −e, located at a laboratory distance of l = 10⁻¹ m, this results in

F c = − ( 1 e ) 2 4 π × 8.85 × 10 − 12 × l 2 = − ( 1.6 × 10 − 19 ) 2 4 π × 8.85 × 10 − 12 × ( 10 − 1 ) 2 = − 2.30 × 10 − 26 N (10a)

It is noted that, in Equations (10) and (10a), the two F_P and F_C forces obtained were not equal, but were in the same large domain, with F P ≪ F C , which is also due to the approximations of the physical parameters of ether and the simplified forces f_i, used in the above numerical calculation and which is more suitable for astronomical distances.

Comparing this result with the result from i), we conclude that the method utilized above and also in [3] , is more suitable for the astronomical domain, while for the laboratory and atomic domains, it must be improved.

This can also be seen by considering that the value of F_P obtained in (10) is the force resulting only from only one electric interaction path l_i from among many interaction paths and multiple corresponding forces F_Pi, as shown in Section 5.

We will now analyse the physical mechanism for producing an electrical interaction between the MPs, which we consider as being the only carriers of the positive and negative electric charges. This hypothesis implies the existence of only charged MP⁺ and MP⁻ microparticles, but in this paper the signs + and − will not be indicated but only supposed. Even particles which are considered neutral, such as neutrons, are composed of MP⁺ and MP⁻ pairs, giving zero total charge.

As a result of the electrical interactions between MPs in the ether, there will be a force that will act on each electrically charged MP. Classically, this force is considered today to be Coulomb’s F_C electric force.

However, this force was recently identified and named by the present authors [3] the Coulomb completed force or F_CC.

The F_CC will be created as an effect of ε and γ ether deformations developed on the surface of the MP2, produced by the FVs originating from MP1. We can assume that the FVs are transmitted through ether, by rays, roads or paths, starting from MP1 and inclined at different angles α_i (Figure 4). Next, we will denote by l_i the lengths of the complete paths between MP1 and MP2, starting at radius r_i.

The effect of ε and γ ether deformations is also seen by changes in the stresses σ and τ acting on the surface of MP2 (Figure 2, Figure 3), which create F_CC according to the mechanism presented in Section 2.

The FVs travel at a speed c_f, with the first FVs reaching MP2 being those that travel the shortest direct path l₀, arriving after time t₀ (Figure 4, Figure 5).

t 0 = l 0 / c f (11)

The first FVs will leave MP1 at time t_i. For simplicity, we adopt t_i = 0, without thereby affecting the generality of the analysis. These FVs create ε and γ (both with pulsation ω) deformations of the ether cell network, on the surface of MP2 (Figure 2, Figure 4, Figure 5).

Similarly, the FVs travelling along path l₁ > l₀ reach MP2 after time t₁.

t 1 = l 1 / c f (11a)

Meanwhile, the FVs that travel along path l₂ > l₁ arrive after time t₂

t 2 = l 2 / c f (11b)

while the FVs that travel along path l_n > l_n-1 arrive after the time t_n.

t n = l n / c f (11c)

However, at the same time t₀, all the FVs travelling in the directions of rays r 1 , r 2 , r 3 , ⋯ , r n and moving along paths l 1 , l 2 , l 3 , ⋯ , l n , will be able to reach MP2 (Figure 5, Figure 6). However, they left MP1 in the moments preceding t₀ and their paths must observe the condition of the total accumulated intervals Δl_ti, given that we also have:

Δ t = Δ l / c f , and hence (11d)

Δ l t i = l i − l 0 = t i c f (11e)

However, each of these FV_i vibrations creates a percussion force F_P on MP2, according to Equation (6) in Section 3.

All these F_P forces, when summed up over all FV_i vibrations on the entire surface S of MP2, create the Coulomb completed force F_CC, according to our hypothesis in Equation (21) from [3] .

We can depict the elementary force of the F_P percussion type in a simple and natural general form similar to Equation (6), as a variation proportional to the inverse of the square root of the ray r travelled by the FVs in ether free of any other EPs.

F P = k p r 2 (12)

At time t₀, all the F_Pi forces created by FVs on MP2, leaving MP1 at times t_i from Equation (11c), preceding t₀ and corresponding to the lengths l_i of the travelled paths, simultaneously act directly on MP2. The different forces F_Pi given by (12) oriented according to the rays r_i inclined at angles α_i, are as follows (Figure 5, Figure 6).

F P 0 = k p l 0 2 ; F P 1 = k p l 1 2 ; F P 2 = k p l 2 2 ; ⋯ ; F P i = k p l i 2 ; ⋯ ; F P n = k p l n 2 (13)

The total force F P t o t is obtained by summing all the F_Pi forces from Equations (13), as they are simultaneous actions with simultaneous percussions p_i in time. However, the sum must be vectorial.

This real F P t o t total force will only be obtained correctly if each force F_Pi in the series of forces in (13) is of the F_Pi type, i.e., is the result of a single full vibration FV_i, which will produce a single set of percussions p_i. This result can only be obtained if, when starting from MP1, the FV_i waves are separated in time by a time period T_i. This fact will correspond, on arrival at MP2, with the distance between two successive wavelengths of FV_i.

Δ l i = λ = c t (14)

On MP2b, the F_2i forces have the same formulas as in Equation (13), but with new distances l_i adapted according to Figure 6.

Below, we analyse the situation created at the surface of an MP2, where the specific deformations ε and γ(ω) occur in the EC network of the ether. These deformations are due to the FVs created by a series of microparticles MP1a, MP1b, MP1c, … (Figure 7).

Obviously, according to Figure 7, the deformations ε and γ(ω) in the ether, at a point P_i on the surface of MP2, located at distances l_a, l_b, l_c from MP1a, MP1b and MP1c, decrease inversely relative to the square of these distances, when taking into account the formula for F_C obtained in Equation (1) from [1] and the formula of the F_P force obtained in Equation (13). This behaviour of FVs in the ether, considered as a special mechanical matter, is also justified by its similarity to a common physical phenomenon depending on 1/r² in normal matter (solid, liquid or gas).

Therefore, the unitary forces σ and τ, exerted upon MP2 by the ECs due to the strains ε and γ(ω) created by MP1a, MP1b, …, will have to be inversely proportional to the square of these distances l a 2 , ⋯ , l c 2 , ⋯ based on the result from Section 4.

In Figure 7, only the effect of the direct rays r_a, having the slope α₀ = 0˚ with path length l_a, is represented as a grid of ECs near MP2 and as percussions p_i.

However, it is necessary to analyse the effects upon MP2 produced by other possible indirect paths starting from MP1, on various radii r_1i drawn in any direction with inclination angles α_i (Figures 5-7).

As the rays starting from MP1 are inclined at angle α_i, they are able to reach MP2 on an indirect path in the form of an isosceles triangle (Figure 6). This isosceles path will be the shortest path starting from MP1 at any angle α_i.

Such a path can be accomplished physically by applying the Huygens principle to the midpoint C_i of the radius r_1i (Figure 5). Here, the circles (in the plane problem, but real spheres in the spatial problem) of the Huygens secondary waves with a centre at C_i will allow the construction of the symmetrical radius r ′ 1 i of the radius r_1i.

In fact, at the point C_i (Figure 5), the waves which will travel along the ray r_1i, will arrive at the same time as those arriving from the r_2i radius that started from MP2 simultaneously with r_1i. As a result, the interaction between MP1 and MP2 must be symmetrical in space and in time (Figure 5, Figure 6).

Therefore, it can also be considered that, at point C_i (Figure 5), a special interference of FVs appears, with no terminus point between the waves in the rays r_1i and r_2i. At this point, these rays mutually interchange their path, moving in the forward direction beyond point C_i. This phenomenon is symmetrical due to the symmetry of MP1 and MP2, including the ether homogeneity and hence the symmetry of HM16.

The rays r i + r ′ i , which are inclined at the angle α_i, will travel the corresponding distances l_i (Figure 5, Figure 6) to MP2 in a longer time t_i.

However, at a certain moment (t₀), various waves with rays r_i, which left MP1 at various moments preceding t₀ (the shortest time), will arrive at MP2 with forces F_Pi according to Equation (13), giving a total force F P t o t .

A question arises as to whether the overlapping of rays with various angles α_i > 0 from the other MPs existing in the range close to MP2 (Figure 6), influence the final result of the interaction force F_P between MP1 and MP2. The situation occurs in compact MBs (solids, liquids) when the distance d₀ between neighbouring MPs is less than 1₀ at a certain density.

However, as we discuss and analyse for two different physical situations for MP2, isolated or not isolated, the result for the F_P force must be different. Consequently, it is necessary to introduce a correction reducing F_P based on the MP density. Such a correction is possible using various mathematical procedures, including correcting the power of 2 in the distance l².

However, in our current stage of analysis, we evaluate the interaction between any MP1 and MP2 as isolated, considering the normal contribution of all the rays with angles α ≤ 45˚ (a cone, in space).

In this paper, we analysed the role of the ether and the effect of its presence in nature, in the form of our HM16 model, with reference to the interaction between two MPs situated at the distance l. The interaction consists of forces F_P, produced by mechanical percussions between MPs through the ether vibrations FVs, and depending on 1/l². But the forces F_P, constitute in fact the so called electric Coulomb’s forces F_C, between so called electric charges, which charges in fact do not exist as a physical quantity.

We have shown that the force F_P, regarded as the basic elementary electric force, can be considered as the resultant force of multiple percussions p_i on an MP. These percussions are produced by the vibrating ECs of the ether and are transmitted by the fundamental vibrations (FVs) created in ether by other MPs. Was calculated that individual F_P force given by the ether percussions at astronomical distances is practically equal with F_C, but at laboratory distance discrepancies appear, indicating the theory applicability at long distances.

An initial assessment of the all F_P forces upon an MP was made in the paper, using a simplified numerical calculation, aimed to determine the effect of all FVs travelling along various rays/paths l_i through the ether, between two MPs considered today as having electric charges.

However, a series of such paths departing in a given time interval from MP1, at different angles from the direct path to MP2, but inside an angle of 45˚, will arrive at the same moment t₀ at MP2, with the result that their individual forces F_Pi cumulates their effects, and so compensating the decrease of F_P due to the term in 1/l².

As a result of these multiple paths and of associated forces F_Pi, a limited to 1.0 decrease in the final F_P force was obtained in the calculations, along with an increase in the distance l, in contrast to Coulomb’s law, where F_C decreases to zero with increasing l, due to the term in 1/l².

The effects of these multiple paths, of associated forces F_Pi, and of the spatial presence of the ether, were evaluated by numerical calculus which furnished a limit to 1.0 in the decrease of the F_P forces ratio, when doubling the distance l. This result is in contrast to Coulomb’s F_C forces, whose ratio decreases to 0.25 with doubling l, and to zero after multiples doublings.

Accordingly, the possibility of including the term lnr in the F_CC forces was demonstrated, because the ratio of decreasing of lnr is capped also to 1.0 for doubling l at long distances.

These results justify the possibility and necessity of introducing the term lnr into the F_CC force in Equations (21) in [3] , which will be maintained in our future analyses.

As a consequence of the above results validating the F_CC force formula, the electrical nature of gravity based on the electrical dipole constitution of matter, is confirmed, since numerical results given by F_DC force as gravity force, are very close to those gave by Newton’s law force F_N [3] .

Our “new gravity” theory, starting from the F_CC electric force in [3] , involves a more complex force law of gravity, considering for this the F_DC force between the electrical dipoles of all matter. The formula of F_DC force is constituted by a series of powers of r^x, which is different from Newton’s simple gravitational force F_N.

However, the new form of the gravitational force F_DC will explain special phenomena observed elsewhere.

The above results through F_DC as gravitation force, undermine the usefulness of gravity wave searches, of black hole hunting and of searches for dark matter and dark energy, which can all (among other things) be explained by the new gravity force F_DC.

Obviously, our overall analysis of gravity started earlier in 2000, with the admission of the existing error in Michelson’s calculation [9] , resulting immediately in the nonutility of Special Relativity Theory (SRT), along with the readmission of the ether into physics, according to the HM16 model. The ether presence indicates the uselessness of General Relativity (GR), and of Newton’s law force F_N, which can be replaced by the F_DC force, appearing between any two electrical dipoles constituents of all the matter, at any distance. But the F_DC force complex general equation, needs to be developed and applied to different practical situations, by physics community.

The first author acknowledges the initial advice on the subject and the encouragement of his late professor N. Barbulescu. He is sincerely grateful to the late Prof. P. Mazilu from TUCB Bucharest for his rigorous lessons on rationality. He is also indebted to Gen. Prof. G. Barsan, Col. Prof. Al. Babos from LFA Sibiu, Prof. D. Stoicescu from ULBS Sibiu, Prof. D. Siposan from MTA Bucharest and Miss Veronica Has from Bucharest, for their continued or past support. For the first developments of this theme, the authors appreciate the support of the MEC (grant under contract no. 05-D11-54/2005).

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Has, I., Miclaus, S. and Has, A. (2019) An Analysis of the Origin of the Interaction Force between Electric Charges, including Justification of the lnr Term in the Completed Coulomb’s Law, in HM16 Ether. Journal of Modern Physics, 10, 1090-1124. https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2019.109071