PM can be divided into four categories:

• TSP: (Total Suspended Particulates): particulate matter with an upper size limit of approximately 100 µm.

• PM₁₀: particles with a diameter less than 10 micrometers (course particles), such as those found near roadways and dusty industries, and pose a health concern because they can be inhaled into and accumulate in the respiratory system.

• PM_2.5: particles with a diameter less than 2.5 micrometers (fine particulates) such as those found in smoke and haze, and are believed to pose the largest health risks. PM_2.5 has very small size less than one-seventh the average width of a human hair and can lodge deeply into the lungs and reach terminal bronchioles and alveoli.

• UFPs (Ultrafine Particulates): particles with a diameter less than 0.1 micrometer (PM_0.1) (WHO, 2001) [1].

It is imperative to survey sources to solve the problem of PM high concentrations. PM sources may be natural or anthropogenic: 1) Natural sources that include dust storms, pollen grains and spores, volcanic eruptions, forest and grassland fires and sea spray. 2) Anthropogenic sources that include industrial processes, combustion of fossil fuel, either by stationary sources or by transportation, construction and demolition activities, exciting of road dust in the atmosphere (especially in unpaved roads), domestic solid waste, smoking, and agricultural operations (US EPA, Dec. 2009) [2].

Exposure to PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 has adverse effects on human health whether in the short or long terms. US/EPA published a reference about Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter (ISA PM) in December 2009, which included inventory of different health effects of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 which scientific studies had shown that there was an explicit correlation between PM concentrations and these diseases. (US EPA, Dec.2009) [2].

1) Exposure to PM_2.5

PM_2.5 considered more influential than PM₁₀ on human health because of its ability to penetrate the respiratory system and access to trachea and primary bronchi. Research studies have shown that exposure to large concentrations of PM_2.5 leads to different health problems in respiratory and circulatory systems and cause mortality as shown in Table 1 (US EPA, Dec.2009) [2].

2) Exposure to PM_10-2.5

Different epidemiologic studies have done to find correlation between PM₁₀ concentrations and different health diseases as shown in Table 2 (US EPA, Dec.2009) [2].

Alexandria is the largest industrial city (with ≈40% of the total Egyptian industry). There are 280,000 registered industrial firms and 1,837,000 registered handicraft workshops. It has 10 industrial zones with total area 22,687 Acre as shown in Table 18. Many industries are considered to be major sources of PM pollution such as cement, fertilizers, ceramic, chemical, and timber industries (http://www.alexandria.gov.eg (Last visit: 24/07/2015)) [14].

Construction and demolition wastes are considered to be one of the major anthropogenic sources of PM pollution. Its adverse effects increase with wind movement especially when it leaved without disposal in designated places. In 2010, demolition wastes in Egypt have reached 41.7 million tons (IDSC, Dec 2011) [5].

According to CAPMAS reports, 1035 km approximately of roads in Alexandria unpaved (equivalent to 21% of roads in the governorate)―Table 19―while the number of licensed vehicles up to 622,542 vehicles at the end of December 2012.

83221 of them are Lorries and 10,208 trucks as well as others that entering and leaving daily from the governorate (IDSC, Dec 2011) [5].

This huge number of cars with the presence of nearly a quarter of the streets

of Alexandria unpaved inevitably lead to raise dust and the high concentrations of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 in ambient air significantly.

Agricultural residues in Alexandria became 212.7 thousand tons in 2010 while household wastes reached to 969.3 thousand tons and hence Alexandria became the third governorate (after Cairo and Giza) in terms of waste generation (CAPMAS, 2012) [4]. Garbage companies cannot collect all these quantities of wastes on a regular basis and keep part of it in streets that causes dust creation in the ambient air with any slight increase in winds movement.

CSR is the traditional way to refer to the role of a business in contributing positively to the larger community in which it operates. ISO 26000 uses the term Social Responsibility (SR) to refer to this concept, to show that its guidance can be used by all kinds of organizations (ECOLOGIA, May 2011) [15].

However, since this handbook is designed especially for the needs of small and medium size businesses, we have used CSR the more familiar term throughout. ISO 26000 identifies seven core subjects that socially responsible businesses should address. Implementers of ISO 26000 should evaluate their actions in each of the core subjects, to identify what they are doing in their current practices, and to set priorities for improvements (ECOLOGIA, May 2011) [15]. ISO 26000 has seven core subjects which are

1) Organizational governance: Practicing accountability and transparency at all levels of your organization; using leadership to create an organizational culture which uses core values of social responsibility when making business decisions.

2) Human rights: Treating all individuals with respect; making special efforts to help people from vulnerable groups.

3) Labor practices: Providing just, safe and healthy conditions for workers; engaging in two way discussions to address workers’ concerns.

4) Environment: Identifying and improving environmental impacts of your operations, including resource use and waste disposal.

5) Fair operating practices: Respecting the law; practicing accountability and fairness in your dealings with other businesses, including your suppliers.

6) Consumer issues: Providing healthy and safe products, giving accurate information, and promoting sustainable consumption.

7) Community involvement and development: Getting involved in the betterment of the local communities that your organization operates in; being a good neighbor (ECOLOGIA, May 2011) [15].

ISO 14001 is an internationally agreed standard that sets out the requirements for an environmental management system. It helps organizations improve their environmental performance through efficient use of resources and reduction of waste, gaining a competitive advantage and the trust of stakeholders (ISO Central Secretariat, 2015) [16].

ISO 14001 helps:

• Demonstrate compliance with current and future statutory and regulatory requirements.

• Increase leadership involvement and engagement of employees.

• Improve company reputation and the confidence of stakeholders through strategic communication.

• Achieve strategic business aims by incorporating environmental issues into business management.

• Provide a competitive and financial advantage through improved efficiencies and reduced costs.

• Encourage better environmental performance of suppliers by integrating them into the organization’s business systems.

Implementation of integrated ISO 2600 and ISO 14001 will solve many environmental problems. For example, Wadi El-Qamar Street can be paved as Social responsibility of surrounding companies in this area according to 7^th ISO 26000 core subject or as Improvement of their environmental performance by decreasing PM emitted because of transporting raw materials and products according to ISO 14001 (ISO Central Secretariat, 2015) [16].

Quick review of the administrative border of the Alexandria governorate―Figure 3 shows that the monitoring stations need to restructure as:

1) Nearly western half of the Alexandria does not have monitoring stations, although it includes the New Borg El-Arab city, which includes several industrial zones.

2) Total area of cultivated land in Alexandria governorate is 18,120,000 Acre according to IDSC in 2010 (8,427,000 old land + 9,642,000 new land) with total cropped area of 31,612,000. Most of those agricultural areas are located in the southern part of Alexandria and there is no monitoring stations represent agriculture areas, although it is considered downwind for all industrial areas.

3) There are 6 stations of the seven which include instruments to monitor PM₁₀ and none of them include any device for measuring PM_2.5 although it is the most dangerous to human health.

PM collection occurs when the particle leaves the entraining air and contact a collecting surface. There are different applicable techniques such as elutriators, cyclones, electrostatic precipitator, etc.

1) Elutriators for PM collection

Elutriators used for PM collection can have either vertical or horizontal orientation. A simplified horizontal elutriators design shown in Figure 9 (Robert F. Phalen, and Robert N. Phalen, 2013) [17].

2) Cyclones:

Cyclones (and aerosol centrifuges) impart a rotational velocity to the particle-containing air stream that produced an increased artificial g-force (gravitational acceleration), sometimes called a “centrifugal” force, to the particles. The increased g-force increases the collection efficiency, especially for small particles that normally settle slowly. A common cyclone design used for PM collection is shown in Figure 10 (Robert F. Phalen, and Robert N. Phalen, 2013) [17].

3) Electrostatic precipitator

Charged particles in an electrical field can encounter electrostatic forces that greatly exceed resistive drag and gravitational forces. Charged particles are attracted to oppositely-charged and grounded bodies. The velocity with charged particle move toward a collecting surface can be more than 1000 times greater than the particle's terminal settling velocity. The movement of an electrically-charged particle toward a collector is the mechanism by which an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) operates. Particles that are to be collected need not carry an initial electrical charge; Figure 11 (Robert F. Phalen, and Robert N. Phalen, 2013) [17].

4) Spray towers

Spray towers typically introduce a water spray that falls downward through an upward-flowing “dirty” air stream. Contaminant particles are collected on the

falling water droplets by impaction and diffusion. Gases are collected by diffusion to the water droplets where they are absorbed. A demister (e.g., wire screens) above the sprayer section collets contaminated water droplets before they exit at the top of the tower. Cleaned air exits above the demister at the top of the tower. Water droplets and condensed water (from the demister) fall into a sump or drain at the bottom of the tower, Figure 12 (Robert F. Phalen, and Robert N. Phalen, 2013) [17].

5) Venturi Scrubbers

Venturi Scrubbers operate on the principles similar to spray towers. They differ in that the contaminated air usually flows downward toward a converging “throat” where it is rapidly accelerated. Liquid is introduced along the wall above the converging section, where it is aerosolized upon encountering the reduced pressure in the throat. The aerosolized and falling collection liquids contacts and collects the downward flowing particles and gases in a diverging lower section of the scrubber, Figure 13 (Robert F. Phalen, and Robert N. Phalen, 2013) [17].

6) Bag filters

Bag filters are specialized filters that are preferable to simple flat filters because they can be repeatedly cleaned and reuse. Thus, they do not require frequent replacement. Bag filters are widely used for the collection of PM in high-throughput applications, such as coal-fired power plants, or for other industrial processes that require efficient dust emission controls, Figure 14 (Robert F. Phalen, and Robert N. Phalen, 2013) [17].

7) Packed beds

Packed beds, such as those containing activated charcoal or collections of glass, metal, or plastic beads, are used for efficiently collecting particles and gases, including caustic substances. The beads can be coated with various substances to improve their performance (Robert F. Phalen, and Robert N. Phalen, 2013) [17].

PM_2.5 not included in the Egyptian environmental law till 2011, and also its AQLs in the new amendment (for 24-hr and annual average) is noticed to be higher than all international AQLs as shown in Figure 15. It must be reduced to be compatible with international AQLs.

One of the most serious problems that lead to increasing of PM pollution is “soft” enforcement of environmental regulations. The response of industry to current environmental regulations in Alexandria, Egypt was investigated. Environmental officers in 55 industrial firms completed a questionnaire examining their opinions about current environmental regulations, the statuses of their companies’ compliance with those regulations, and the environmental management progress and problems in their companies. Although Egyptian industrialists had positive opinions about environmental regulations, their companies were not in satisfactory compliance with those regulations. The context in which environmental concern started in Egypt and the economic environment of Egyptian industry had led to “soft” enforcement and implementation of environmental regulations. The response of Alexandria's industrial firms to the issued environmental regulations was limited to adopting symbolic “end-of-pipe” environmental protection measures. Progress in environmental management and problems in industries of Alexandria were also investigated (Hisham El-Zayat, Gihan Ibraheem, and Sherif Kandil, April 2006) [18].