The response of olive orchard with same age and type to irrigation with treated municipal wastewater and freshwater was investigated in three years. Physical and chemical properties of the treated municipal wastewater reuse in agriculture (the effluent) produced by the Sheikh Ejleen wastewater treatment plant in Gaza Strip, freshwater, soil, and olive oil were determined and compared with Palestinian and international standards. The biological oxygen demand (BOD) of Sheikh Ejleen effluent is 60 mg ·l -1 , which indicates low quality effluent. The results indicate that most of olive oil quality parameters —including heavy metals and trace elements for both fruits irrigated with treated wastewater or irrigated with freshwater —fall within the acceptable standard limit values. Moreover, soil analysis shows that organic content and cation exchange capacity were improved in soil irrigated with treated wastewater in comparison with that irrigated with freshwater. The results also show that there is no trace elements or heavy metals accumulation in soil.
Agriculture is an essential component of the Palestinian national, cultural, economic and social fabric. It is also important for Palestinians as it embodies their perseverance, confrontation and adherence to their land under the threat of confiscation and settlement activities [
The olive tree is of great significance for Palestinians, as it has cultural, traditional and economic value. Harvest season was always seen as a joyful time for family and friends to gather. Palestine has some of the world’s oldest olive trees, some dating back 4000 years. There are approximately 11 million olive trees accounting for 70% of fruit production in Palestine [
However, the agriculture sector is facing many challenges and obstacles. The political conflict in Palestine is the most critical of these challenges, characterized by the occupation practices of land confiscation, control over natural resources, and restriction on mobility of products between Palestinian areas on one hand; and with the international market on the other, hand. The agricultural sector is also suffering from the limited water sources, the access restrictions, and climate changes challenges [
The Middle East countries are suffering from sharp shortage of water resources and increasing water demand due to increase of population and exploitation of the available water resources [
The increasing competition for good-quality water among different water-use sectors has reduced allocation of freshwater for agriculture [
On light of the above, treated wastewater effluent is one of the promising solutions in the integrated water management. It is less expensive and considered an attractive source of irrigation water. Moreover, it is considered a promising practice that helps in minimizing the pollution of the ecosystem subjected to contamination by direct disposal into surface or groundwater. In addition, treated wastewater is a valuable source for plant nutrients and organic matter needed for maintaining fertility and productivity of arid soils.
In the present work, treated wastewater of Sheikh Ejleen wastewater treatment plant is used to irrigate olive orchard in order to study its effect on olive oil properties, soil, environment, public health, etc., in comparison with reference sample of olive trees of the same type and age irrigated by fresh groundwater as control, then, quality of olive oil extracted from trees irrigated by different types of irrigation is compared.
The experiment was conducted in Gaza strip at El-Zaitoun area in Shetawe’s farm, and it’s at 800 m from Gaza treatment plant, where a pilot project called Sheikh Ejleen Pilot Project for using the treated wastewater in irrigation of olive orchard.
The Gaza Strip area is part of Palestine. It is a very small area of about 365 km2 located at the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, about 35 km long and between 6 to 12 km wide The Gaza Strip forms a transitional zone between the semi-humid coastal area in the north and the semi-arid Sinai desert in the south [
Sheikh Ejleen wastewater treatment plant is a hybrid system consists of anaerobic lagoons, biotowers (attached growth biofilm), and activated sludge (suspended growth) wastewater plant that built in 1978 and redesigned and rehabilitated in 1996 to remove nutrients (carbonaceous, nitrogen, and phosphorous) from wastewater. It is located at Gaza Strip south of Gaza City on 140 dunums with a rated capacity of 60,000 m3/d (for design year 2020). The plant receives mostly residential wastewater. The partially-treated effluent is discharged to Mediterranean Sea. Currently there is a pilot reuse project of about 1000 m3/day [
The olive orchard in Sheikh Ejleen-Gaza Strip was divided in to two parts of the same variety of olive trees (K18), the same age, and with the same olive fruit color, which is green. In each part, three lines of olive trees were considered as three replicates, and samples were taken randomly from these replicates. The total area of the orchard is about 23 dunums (1 dunum = 1000 m2). One part (14 dunums) was irrigated by secondary treated wastewater (STWW) obtained from Sheikh Ejleen wastewater treatment plant while the second parts (9 dunums) was irrigated by freshwater (FW). Olive oil characteristic of the two parts were compared depending on technical lab analysis. Moreover, conditions to minimize the risk to public health and environment, and to promote safe application of wastewater reuse were discussed. Green ripe olives were harvested in October manually by hand, and milled after 5 - 6 days. Olive fruit samples for extraction were taken randomly by hand. Virgin olive oil was extracted by milling the selected olive fruit sample, followed by suction filtration with warm water, and then oil separation using separatory funnel. Effect of using treated wastewater in irrigation on selected olive oil quality parameters such as refractive index, free acidity, peroxide value, iodine value, trace metals and heavy metals was studied by comparing the results with reference sample used as control (extracted from trees irrigated with fresh water). Moreover, results of both olive oil samples (irrigated with treated wastewater or with fresh water) were compared with Palestinian and international standards.
In Gaza, as in Palestine, there is a large gap between water resources and demand [
About 90% to 95% of Coastal Aquifer―the municipal water supply for drinking in Gaza―is considered unfit for human consumption and not potable according to WHO standards [
The results indicate that total dissolved solid (TDS), chloride, nitrate, potassium, calcium, and sodium contents in the drinking groundwater sample exceeding the Palestinian Standard acceptable limit. In fact, the groundwater aquifer is deteriorated because of pollution, increasing demand and the Israeli control of Palestinian water resources. As pumping increases, the aquifer becomes more deteriorated and more brackish.
Various effluents samples were taken from Sheikh Ejleen wastewater treatment plant for physical, chemical and biological characteristics.
Results in
The study area can be irrigated by the treated wastewater (effluent) because the water table is deep; freshwater quality in aquifers is low and somewhere the water considered as brackish water; irrigated area is far away from residential areas and population; and it is closer to Sheikh Ejleen treatment plant.
| TDS mg∙l−11 | pH | Chloride mg∙l−1 | Nitrate mg∙l−1 | Potassium mg∙l−1 | Magnesium mg∙l−1 | Calcium mg∙l−1 | Sodium mg∙l−1 | Detergent mg∙l−1 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sample | 1300 ± 10 | 6.9 ± 0.1 | 670 ± 15 | 61.0 ± 0.1 | 42.6 ± 0.1 | 97.0 ± 0.8 | 110.0 ± 0.5 | 398.0 ± 9.5 | 0.30 ± 0.01 |
| PS* | 1000 | 6.5-8.5 | 250 | 50 | 10 | 100 | 100 | 200 | 0.5 |
*: Palestinian Standard for drinking water (PS-41/2005) issued by Palestinian Standard Institute.
| Effluent | PS* | |
|---|---|---|
| pH | 7.43 ± 0.1 | 6 - 9 |
| TDS (mg∙l−1) | 2320 ± 10 | 1500 |
| TSS (mg∙l−1) | 35 ± 1 | 50 (C) quality |
| Chloride (mg∙l−1) | 1100 ± 22 | 400 |
| Sulfate (mg∙l−1) | 95 ± 1 | 500 |
| Sodium (mg∙l−1) | 600 ± 35 | 200 |
| Calcium (mg l-1) | 132 ± 15 | 400 |
| Magnesium (mg∙l−1) | 90 ± 5 | 60 |
| Nitrate (mg∙l−1) | 70 ± 4 | 50 |
| Total phosphorus (mg∙l−1) | 4.7 ± 0.1 | 30 |
| Potassium (mg∙l−1) | 26 ± 1 | |
| BOD (mg∙l−1) | 60 ± 3 | 60 (D) quality |
| COD (mg∙l−1) | 185 ± 5 | 150 |
| Boron (mg∙l−1) | 0.50 ± 0.01 | 0.7 |
*: Palestinian Standard for using effluent in irrigation (PS-742/2003) of fruit trees issued by Palestinian Standard Institute.
The crops are susceptible to heavy metals if, there is a source of heavy metals that either natural or artificial reaches wastewater. Compatible conditions stimulate heavy metals to release such as low pH is not exist in Gaza because there are no heavy industries to release heavy metals. On the contrary, high pH, in Gaza soil due to the presence of carbonate and bicarbonate, contributes to heavy metals fixation. Therefore, heavy metals, if found, will not affect the crops. However, periodic analytical tests must be done in order to avoid future accumulative effects. This is in agreement with data in
Using treated wastewater in irrigation improves soil properties in term of organic matter content and cation exchange capacity as shown in
| Soil irrigated by effluent | Soil irrigated by freshwater | |
|---|---|---|
| Clay (%) | 17.5 ± 0.1 | 17.5 |
| Silt (%) | 10.0 ± 0.1 | 15.0 |
| Sand (%) | 72.5 ± 0.1 | 67.5 |
| pH | 8.149 ± 0.010 | 8.295 |
| TDS (mg∙l−1) | 460 ± 8 | 448 |
| EC (µS/cm) | 767 ± 15 | 746 |
| Organic matter (%) | 3.55 ± 0.10 | 1.27 |
| Calcium carbonate (%) | 8.2 ± 0.1 | 11 |
| Cation exchange capacity (meq/100 g) | 0.532 ± 0.010 | 0.238 |
| Chloride (mg∙kg−1) | 188 ± 3 | 125 |
| Sodium (mg∙kg−1) | 200 ± 4 | 170 |
| Calcium (mg∙kg−1) | 27.0 ± 0.1 | 20 |
| Magnesium (mg∙kg−1) | 20.0 ± 0.1 | 12 |
| Nitrate (mg∙kg−1) | 19.0 ± 0.1 | 27 |
| Potassium (mg∙kg−1) | 9.0 ± 0.1 | 15 |
| Total alkalinity (mg∙kg−1) | 92.0 ± 0.1 | 79 |
| Carbonate alkalinity (mg∙kg−1) | Not detected | Not detected |
| Phosphate (mg∙kg−1) | Not detected | Not detected |
| Manganese (mg∙kg−1) | 24.0 ± 0.1 | 2.1 |
| Boron (mg∙kg−1) | 7.9 ± 0.1 | 0.7 |
| Cadmium (mg∙kg−1) | 0.30 ± 0.01 | 0.2 |
| Zinc (mg∙kg−1) | 41.0 ± 0.1 | 18 |
| Nickel (mg∙kg−1) | 2.20 ± 0.01 | 3.2 |
| Trees irrigated by effluent | Trees irrigated by freshwater | PS* | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Acidity expressed as oleic acid (%) | 3.8 ± 0.1 | 3.14 ± 0.1 | 3.3 |
| Peroxide value (meq∙O2∙Kg−1) | 20.2 ± 0.3 | 25.8 ± 0.4 | 20 |
| Iodine value (g I2/100 g∙oil) | 96 ± 2 | 92 ± 2 | 75-94 |
| Refractive index at 20˚C | 1.4697 ± 0.0003 | 1.4705 ± 0.0005 | 1.4677 - 1.4705 |
| Relative density at˚C | 0.907 ± 0.001 | 0.906 ± 0.001 | 0.910 - 0.916 |
| Iron (mg∙kg−1) | 2.80 ± 0.01 | 3.10 ± 0.01 | 5.0 |
| Lead (mg∙kg−1) | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 0.1 |
| Copper (mg∙kg−1) | 0.01< | 0.01< | 0.1 |
| Cadmium (mg∙kg−1) | 0.01< | 0.01< | 0.1 |
*: Palestinian Standard for olive oil (PS-188/1997) issued by Palestinian Standard Institute.
There are no significant differences of quality parameters for olive oil extracted from the fruits of both irrigation types. However, Acidity (expressed as oleic acid) of olive oil extracted from fruits of the trees irrigated with treated wastewater has higher value than the standard limit, it’s likely because of using careless extraction methods for pressing the fruits of the trees that irrigated with wastewater. On the other hand, peroxide values for olive oil extracted from fruits of the trees irrigated with freshwater is higher than that extracted from fruits of the trees irrigated with effluent, the values exceed the standard allowable limit, it’s likely because it’s lower in oleic acid or less monounsaturated than polyunsaturated fatty acids. This renders olive oil less resistant to oxidation.
Conditions in the study area such as low quality freshwater, availability of Sheikh Ejleen treatment plant which provides close source of treated wastewater, and the absence of heavy metals due to domestic origin of influent, motivate using of the effluent in irrigation. On the other hand, the concerns for human health and the environment are the most important constraints in the reuse of treated wastewater. Health concerns can be overcome by raising public awareness, and by developing and implementing reuse standards. For example, irrigation of olive trees must be stopped for a month before harvest time, and, fallen fruits should not be taken. Moreover, the possibilities of pathogens passing from the treated wastewater to vegetables or fruits can be minimized by keeping an appropriate distance between the treated wastewater and the fruits; using subsurface drip irrigation; and by disinfection of the treated wastewater.
Physical and chemical analysis of drinking groundwater in the study area―Sheikh Ejleen, indicate that concentration of the quality parameters such as total dissolved solid, chloride, sodium, calcium, potassium and nitrate exceed Palestinian standards acceptable limit. In fact, there is no significant difference between effluent quality and freshwater low quality which can be considered as brackish water.
Soil samples analysis show that using treated wastewater in irrigation improves soil properties in term of organic matter content and cation exchange capacity, and there is no significant addition of heavy metals such as boron, manganese, nickel, lead, and cadmium to the soil.
Comparing quality characteristics of olive oil extracted from trees irrigated by effluent or irrigated by freshwater shows that there is no signification difference, and values are fallen within the acceptable standard limit values.
The authors thank Eng. Haneen N. Al-Sbihi and Eng. Yousra A. Abu-Sharekh for the help in samples collection and data analysis during their graduation project in the Environmental Engineering Department―Islamic University of Gaza. The project Water and Livelihood Initiatives (WLI)-ICARDA is highly acknowledged for supporting this work to be published.
Barghouthi, Z., Alimari, A., Qurie, M., Amereih, S. and Al-Dadah, J.Y. (2017) Using Nonconventional Water in Irrigation of Olive Trees and Its Effect on Olive Oil Properties. Journal of Agricultural Chemistry and Environment, 6, 222-231. https://doi.org/10.4236/jacen.2017.64015