1. Introduction

AJPS

American Journal of Plant Sciences

2158-2742

Scientific Research Publishing

10.4236/ajps.2017.812203

AJPS-80281

Articles

Biomedical&Life Sciences

Campus-Wide Floristic Diversity of Medicinal Plants in Indian Institute of Technology-Madras (IIT-M), Chennai

Arumugam

Nagarajan

¹Saravanan

Soorangkattan

²Kavitha

Thangavel

³Boobalan

Thulasinathan

³Jothi

Basu Muthuramalingam

²Arun

Alagarsamy

³^*

Department of Botany, School of Life Sciences, Alagappa University, Karaikudi, India

Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Alagappa University, Karaikudi, India

Under Graduate Lab, Department of Biotechnology, Bhupath and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology-Madras, Chennai, India

* E-mail:arunalacha@gmail.com(AA);

08112017

08122995301220, September 20177, November 2017 13, November 2017

2014

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

The floristic diversity of plants and their abundance were analyzed in 2.5 km campus to explore their medical importance by random sampling. The results for plant diversity in IIT-M campus showed nearly 100 species of flowering plants, with genera belonging to nearly 40 families. The most dominant family in the present study is Fabaceae with 15 species (25%) of the medicinal trees. In addition, the dominant medicinal herbs belong to the families of Acanthaceae , Apocynaceae , Fabaceae and Rubiaceae containing 4 species (12%) each. The identified medicinal tree and herb are verified with Red data book to explore their conservation status of every identified medicinal trees and herbs. On comparison with the existing IUCN red data list, the conservation status of 73% of trees and herbs identified in the present study were not assessed. Also, the biodiversity of plants focused on ethano-botanical aspects to reveal their medicinal uses.

Medicinal Plants Medicinal Tree Plant Diversity Ethano Botany

1. Introduction

Biodiversity plays a key role in the livelihoods of tribes and other people to meet their needs in day-to-day life. The plant kingdom is directly connected with human beings from the beginning of its origination in the universe [1] . India is one of the vast biodiversity-rich countries in the world where the medicinal plants have had traditional importance for ages, specifically, in the fields of Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and homeopathy. Nearly 75% of the remedially important plant species grows in almost wild conditions [2] . In the Southern part of India, Indian Institute of Technology-Madras (IIT-M) geographically located with Latitude:: 13.04N, Longitude:: 80.17E, Altitude:: 6 - 16 m above mean sea level. The campus spans over an area of 236 ha comprising of three major zones―academic, residential and hostel; each acting as a thriving environment for flora and fauna and a wide variety animals and reptiles. A fourth zone identified as Wilderness Zone has been selected for biodiversity assessment. This zone has the richest biodiversity in the Campus. Each zone approximately holds 60 ha area in an uneven configuration or shape. This wilderness zone vegetation is majorly of Southern Thorn Forest type, dominated by cactus followed by Ficus which has significant cultural value. As per the survey, the campus has 432 species of plants were identified/observed (Figure 1).

2. Materials and Methods

The institute campus area has a wide distribution of medicinal plants which was made as the main objective of the present study. The distribution of these medicinal plants/tree were identified the aid of taxonomists from Dept of Botany, Alagappa university by referring to authentic literature of the regional flora web database developed by the Prakati Wildlife club of IIT-Madras, Chennai and cross verified with “The flowering plants of Madras city and its immediate neighborhood” [3] . An effective analysis has been performed to identify the available medicinal plants along with their distribution and their medicinal uses.

2.1. Ethano Botanical Survey

The ethno botanical survey was carried out by wild life club volunteers of IIT-Madras, between august and September 2016. This study covered total vegetation of the area with emphasis on the ethno botanical hotspots of IIT-Madras campus.

2.2. Overall Diversity of Vegetation

Thirty-six per cent of the non-cultivated plants species are trees. Excluding cultivated trees such as papaya, lime, sapota, etc., that are rarely found outside gardens and homesteads, 107 species of trees are present on the IIT-M campus. The greater presence of tree species has rendered the vegetation type as a forest.

2.3. Over All Diversity of Medicinal Trees/Herbs

298 species of non-cultivated plants were identified on the campus. The numbers may increase between 350 - 400 species while including the garden plants. 36% of the non-cultivated plants on the campus are trees. However, of the trees only 40% are native. The higher contribution to the diversity of native flora was rose from the grasses (100%), climbers (84%) and herbs (80%). 107 sps., of plants, are non-native. Among these 9 species were invasive. Prosopis juliflora is the most invasive plant on the campus. 50% to 60% of the trees in the wilderness zone were dominated by this species. Both tree and herb specimens were collected and identified using regional flora. The collected plant specimen’s family and species were confirmed with community herbarium, MS Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai.

2.4. Calculation of Shannon Index of Species Diversity and Species Richness

The species diversity of medicinal trees and herbs were calculated using Shannon diversity index [4] . It has a combination of two quantifiable measures like species richness and species accountability. Higher in numbers of a species denotes wide range of diversity, Shannon-Wiener diversity Index is defined and given by the following function: MATLAB program was created to calculate the Shannon index. [5] .

H = Σ[(pi) × ln(pi)]

Pi = proportion of total samples represented by species i

S = number of species, = species richness,

Hmax = Ln(S) = Maximum diversity possible

E = Evenness = H/Hmax

3. Determination of Conservation Status of Plants and Herbs

The universal conservation status of identified trees and Herbs were determined by IUCN red data list cross verification.

4. Result

The results on the survey of the plant diversity in the IIT-M campus showed nearly 100 species of flowering plants (both trees and herbs). Among these, 100 genera belonged to 40 families. The most dominant family in the present study was Fabaceae with 18 species (25%). Next to that, Moraceae comprises 7 species (9%), Malvaceae include 6 species (8%). The dominant medicinal herbs are from Acanthaceae, Apocynaceae, Fabaceae and Rubiaceae contain 4 species (12%), and Convolvulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Phyllanthaceae, and Vitaceae are second dominant with 2 species (4%) each. The overall habitat is dominated by Trees in the campus (36 %). The detailed investigation of family in the present study and their medicinal values in a different area is represented in Figure 2 and Table 1 & Table 2.

Table 1 Diversity of trees on campus

Order	Family	Botanical name	Red data list	Portin of plant	Use	Ref
Fabales	Fabaceae	Acacia auriculiformis	LC	Bark	Sores and skin complaints	[6]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Acacia leucophloea	LC	Bark	Traditional medicine to treat bronchitis	[7]
Ericales	Sapotaceae	Achras zapota	NA	Premature fruits and flowers	Treatment of diahheria and pulmonary complaints	[8]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Adenanthera pavonina	NA	Wood, seed, leaves and bark	Treatment of rheumatism, Hair wash	[9]
Cornales	Cornaceae	Alangium salvifolium	NA	Leaves, Fruits, Tree bark, Root bark	Anti-diabetic, blood pressure lowering effect, astringent, rheumatism, Leprosy and inflammatory patches.	[10]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Albizia lebbeck	NA	Leaves, seeds, bark, and roots	Gastro intestine complaints Astringent, anthelmintic and snake bites	[11]
Gentianales	Apocynaceae	Alstonia scholaris	LC	Leaves, bark, and Fruit	Rheumatic swellings, malarial fevers and anthelmintic	[12]
Rosales	Moraceae	Artocarpus heterophylla	NA	Leaves, fruit and seed	Skin diseases, astringent, and carminative,	[13]

Sapindales	Rutaceae	Atlanta racemosa	NA	Stem and leaves	Insect anti feedants	[14]
Sapindales	Meliaceae	Azaridachta indicia	NA	Leaves, stem bark, fruits and seed	Anthelmintic, detoxify the blood, treatment for fever etc.,	[15]
Poales	Poaceae	Bambus vulgaris	NA	Leaves and shoots	Treatment for febrile disease	[16]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Bauhinia racemosa	NA	Flower, fruit, root, leaf. Bark and bud	Oral disorders-cure Toothache-Hunchback- Burning sensation-Multi nodular Tuberculosis	[17]
Fabales	Leguminosae	Bohinia purpurea	NA	Flower, root, leaf, bark and bud	Oral disorders, cure Toothache-Hunchback, Burning sensation, Multi nodular Tuberculosis	[18]
Malvales	Malvaceae	Bombax ceiba	NA	Leaves, root and flower	Seminal disorders. Nocturnal emission, semen problems, Leucorrhoea, Improve breast milk	[19]
Arecales	Arecaceae	Borassus flabellifer	NA	Leaves, root and flower	Antihelmintic and diuretic	[20]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Butea monosperma	NA	Whole plant	Anti-Semitic, Diarrhea, Dysentery, Intestinal Worms, Diabetes, Sore Throat	[21]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Caesalpinia coriaria	NA	Whole plant	A sore throat, stomach ache, tonic also used in tanning purpose in leather processing	[22]
Brassicales	Capparaceae	Caparis zeylanica	NA	Root, seed and aerial part	Antipyretic agent	[23]
Brassicales	Caricaceae	Carica papaya	DD	Flower, Fruits, Seed, Leaves, bark	Carminative, diuretic, chronic diarrhea, snakebite, Febrifuge, jaundice, pectoral properties, STD, anti-fungal activity, jaundice, anti-hemolytic activity, sore teeth.	[24]
Arecales	Arecaceae	Caryota mitis	NA	Fruit	Anti-diabetic	[25]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Cassia fistula	NA	Root, Leave, bark	Astringent, febrifuge and strong purgative rheumatism and facial paralysis, insect bites	[26]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Cassia siamea	NA	Fruit, leaves and flower	Antipyretic, to cure intestine worms
Fagales	Casuarinaceae	Casuarina equisetifolia	NA	Root	Dysentery, diarrhea and stomach ache treatment	[27]
Malvales	Malvaceae	Ceiba pentandra	NA	Leaves	Diabetic reducing agent	[28]
Arecales	Arecaceae	Cocos nucifera	NA	Coconut shell fiber Root	Diarrhea, renal diseases	[29]
Myrtales	Combretaceae	Combretum ovalifolium	NA	Leaves and root	Antipyretic	[30]
unplaced	Boraginaceae	Cordia oblica	NA	Leaves, root, flower	Anti diuretic and antipyretic	[31]
Ericales	Lecythidaceae	Couropita guianensis	NA	Fruit pulp, bark and flowers	To heal the infected skin on animals, odontalgia	[32]

Fabales	Fabaceae	Delonix regia	LC	Leafs	Antiruhmatism and ant diabetic agent	[33]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Dichrostachys cinerea	LC	Leaf and bark	Vomiting agent	[34]
Malpighiales	Phyllanthaceae	Emblica Officinalis	NA	Leaf, bark	Immune modulatory, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, hepatoprotective, and anticancer actions. Ant diabetic Ant diarrheal Effect Analgesic and Antipyretic	[35]
Fables	Fabaceae	Enterolobium contortisiliquum	NA	Root and seed coat	Anti helmintic	[36]
Fables	Fabaceae	Erythrina variegata	LC	Bark, leaves	Antipyretic, asthma and coughs	[37]
Rosales	Moraceae	Ficus amplissima	NA	Bark, leaves	Anti-diabetic, anticancer	[37]
Rosales	Moraceae	Ficus benghalensis	NA	Bark, leaves	Anti-diabetic, Antipyretic, asthma and coughs	[38]
Rosales	Moraceae	Ficus elastica	NA	Bark, leaves	Anti-inflammatory, anti diabetic, anticancer	[39]
Rosales	Moraceae	Ficus racemosa	NA	Leaves, bark, latex	Anti-diabetes, astringent, astringent.	[40]
Rosales	Moraceae	Ficus religiosa	NA	Leaves, bark, latex	Anti helmintic activity, immune modulator activity, Anticonvulsant activity	[41]
Lamiales	Lamiaceae	Gmelina asiatica	NA	Root, stem bark, flower and leaf	A headache, snake bite, ulcer	[42]
Malvales	Malvaceae	Guazuma tomentosa	NA	Fruit, Leaf Root, seed	A cough, Hemorrhage, Infections, Leprosy, Nephritis, Asthma, Child Birth	[43]
Ericales	Sapotaceae	Hibiscus tiliaceus	NA	Flowers, root and bark	Enema and Anti depressant	[44]
Gentianales	Rubiaceae	Ixora pavetta	NA	Leaves, flower	Anticancer activity	[45]
Lamiales	Bignoniaceae	Kigelia pinnata	NA	Leaves, fruits and bark	Anti diabetic, Anti inflammatory, anticancer	[46]
Sapindales	Rutaceae	Limonia acidissima	NA	Fruits, leaves and root	Astringent, diuretic, cardio tonic and tonic for the liver and lungs. The antidote for snake bites.	[47]
Ericales	Sapotaceae	Madhuca longifolia	NA	Flower, fruit and seed	Analgesic and diuretic. Astringent and used in chronic tonsillitis and pharyngitis, rheumatism and skin infection, oil used in skin disease.	[48]
Sapindales	Anacardiaceae	Mangifera indica	DD	Leaf, fruit, stem bark and flower	Anti-diabetic, antiviral activity Antitumor and HIV, anti diarrheal	[49]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Millettia peguensis	DD	Leaf, fruit, stem bark and flower	To treat respiratory difficulties, Edema, cold and headaches	[50]
Lamiales	Bignoniaceae	Millingtonia hortensis	NA	Leaf and flower	Anticancer	[51]

Ericales	Sapotaceae	Mimusopis elengi	NA	Leaf, root, fruit, seed, bark and flower	Antinociceptive, diuretic effects, gastro protective, antibacterial, antifungal, anti cariogenic, free radical anti hyperglycemic	[52]
Lamiales	Oleaceae	Nyctanthes arbor-tristis	NA	Flowers	Anti proliferative and anti diabetic	[53]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Parkia biglandulosa	NA	Bark, leaves and seeds	Dental plaque and caries, pneumonia stomach ache, severe cough, diarrhea, wounds, dermatitis, amebiasis, leprosies, alkalosis, tracheitis, conjunctivitis and others like hemorrhoids.	[54]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Peltophorum pterocarpum	NA	Flower, bark and leaves	Paste of stem bark prepared with water is applied topically to treat wounds	[55]
Arecales	Arecaceae	Phoenix sylvestris	NA	Leaf, fruit, seed and bark	Insomnia Treatment. Dysentery and eye lotion	[56]
Gentianales	Apocynaceae	Plumeria obtusa	NA	Flower and bark	Antitumor, antiviral, analgesic, antispasmodic and hypoglycemic	[57]
Gentianales	Apocynaceae	Plumeria rubra	NA	Leaf and Pod	Abortifacient activity and bio control agent	[58]
Magnoliales	Annonaceae	Polyalthia longifolia	NA	Bark	Febrifuge, anti helminthic, skin disease, diabetes, hypertension, helminthiasis, and vitiated conditions of vata and pitta	[59]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Pongamia pinnata	LC	Leaf, bark, seed and flower	Anti-protozoal, Anti-inflammatory activity, anticonvulsant activity, Anti-diabetic activity,	[60]
Myrtales	Myrtaceae	Psidium guajava	NA	Fruits Fruit skins Leaves	Effect on dental plaque, Antimalarial effects, Antitussive effects, Hepato protective effect	[61]
Myrtales	Myrtaceae	Eucalyptus globulus	NA	Leaves and bark	Head ache anti bacterial activity	[62]
Malvales	Malvaceae	Pterospermum acerifolium	NA	Flowers	Ant diabetic activity	[63]
Malpighiales	Putranjivaceae	Putranjiva roxburghii	NA	Seed and fruit	Cough cold and sprue.	[64]
Arecales	Arecaceae	Roystonia regia	NA	Not yet studied	None	[65]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Samanea saman	NA	Leaves, Bark and root	Treatment for diarrhea, stomachache, inhibiting effect on Mycobacterium tuberculosis	[66]
Santalales	Santalum	Santalum album	VU		Antiulcer, diuretic, analgesic, antiseptic, expectorant and stimulant effects	[67]
Sapindales	Sapindaceae	Sapindus trifoliatus	NA	Leaves and fruit	Anti dandruff, anti-implantation activity, eczema, psoriasis, and removing freckles	[68]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Saraka asoca	NA	Leaves and bark	Antimennorhagic, uterine tonic, Anti-inflammatory, anti arthritic, cardio protective effect, Anti-nephrolithiatic	[69]

Lamiales	Bignoniaceae	Spathodea campanulata	NA	Leaves and bark	Ant malarial, anti-HIV	[70]
Malvales	Malveacea	Sterculia urens	NA	Bark	Aboriginal, bulk laxative, throat infections	[71]
Rosales	Moraceae	Streblus asper	NA	Root, stem, bark, Leaves, seeds	As an application to unhealthy ulcers and sinuses and as antidote to snake bite, in epilepsy and obesity	[72]
Myrtales	Myrtaceae	Syzygium cumini	NA	Bark, leaves, fruits	Anti-diabetic, dysentery and bleeding gums	[73]
Lamiales	Bignoniaceae	Tabebuia aurea	NA	Leaves, bark and flower	Anticancer, Anti-inflammatory, Anti malaria	[74]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Tamarindus indica	NA	Leaves, bark and flower	Laxative, Abdominal pain, diarrhea and dysentery, Peptic ulcer Antimicrobial, ant parasitic, antifungal, antiviral, anti-nematode	[75]
Lamiales	Lamiaceae	Tectona grandis	NA	Leaves, bark and flower	Wound healing activity and dysentery.	[76]
Myrtales	Combretaceae	Terminalia arjuna	NA	Bark	Antioxidant and cardio protective activity	[77]
Myrtales	Combretaceae	Terminalia catappa	NA	Bark	Wound healing, anti diabetic, anti oxidant anticancer and anti-mutation	[78]
Malvales	Malvaceae	Thespesia populnea	NA	Leaves and bark	Anti diarrhea, wounds and cholera.	[79]
Gentianales	Apocynaceae	Wrightia tinctoria	LC	Leaves and bark	Wound healing activity, Anti-dandruff activity, Anti-Psoriasis activity	[80]
Rosales	Rhamnaceae	Ziziphus jujuba	LC	Fruits	Anorexia, fatigue and dysentery	[81]
Sapindales	Anacardiaceae	Lannea coromandelica	NA	Whole plant	Protozoan infection, AIDS, viral infection	[82]

Table 2 Diversity of medicinal plants on campus

Order	Family	Botanical name	Red data list	Portion of plant	Use	Ref
Fabales	Fabaceae	Alysicarpus ovalifolius	NA	Whole plant	Blood purifier and diuretic	[83]
Malpighiales	Phyllanthaceae	Phyllanthus maderaspatensis	NA	Whole plant	Ant diabetic, spasmodic, wound, fever, inflammation, antibacterial and snake bite	[84]
Malpighiales	Violaceae	Hybanthus enneaspermus	NA	Leaves and fruits	Diuretic, demulcent and tonic	[85]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Indigofera linnaei	NA	Whole plant	Analgesic with anti-inflammatory activity,	[86]
Poales	Cyperaceae	Cyperus rotundus	LC	Whole plant	Spasms, stomach and bowel disorders and menstrual irregularities	[87]

Lamiales	Acanthaceae	Dipteracanthus prostratus	NA	Whole plant	Anti-diabetic	[88]
Malvales	Malvaceae	Corchorus aestuans	NA	Whole plant	ascites, pain, piles, tumors cystitis, dysuria, fever, and gonorrhea	[89]
Caryophyllales	Nyctaginaceae	Boerhavia difusa	NA	Whole plant	Anti inflammatory	[90]
Lamiales	Acanthaceae	Thunbergia erecta	NA	Whole plant	Antitumor activity, Cytotoxicity, Hepato protective activity, Antinociceptive activity	[91]
Lamiales	Acanthaceae	Tylophora indica	NA	Whole plant	Bronchial asthma, cancer, dysentery, hay fever, inflammation, rheumatism, arthritis and dermatitis.	[92]
Solanales	Convolvulaceae	Merreria tridentata	NA	Whole plant	Anti-inflammatory and anti arthritis	[93]
Gentianales	Apocynaceae	Ichnocarpus frutescens	NA	Whole plant	Ant diabetic	[94]
Solanales	Convolvulaceae	Evolvulus nummularius	NA	Whole plant	Peptide ulcer	[95]
Gentianales	Rubiaceae	Oldenlata umbellata	NA	Whole plant	Stomach worm	[96]
Rosales	Rhamnaceae	Zyziphus oenoplia	NA	Seeds, leaf	Immuno modulatiory effects	[97]
Malpighiales	Putranjivaceae	Putranjiva roxburghii	NA	Leaves and fruit	Colds, fevers and rheumatism	[98]
Malpighiales	Phyllanthaceae	Phyllanthus reticulatus	NA	Whole plant	Anti diarrheal, diuretic, cooling medicine, malaria, asthma and bark are used as astringent and diuretic.	[99]
Gentianales	Rubiaceae	Canthium dicoccum	VU	Whole plant	Anti-diabetic	[100]
Gentianales	Rubiaceae	Benkara malabarica	NA	Bark, leaves	Anticonvulsant activity	[101]
Vitales	Vitaceae	Cissus vitiginea	NA	Leaves, bark and root	Anti-cholesterol, anti-diabetic
Unplaced	Boraginaceae	Heliotropium indicum	NA	Leaves, bark and root	Diarrhea, diabetes, venereal disease	[102]
Lamiales	Lamiaceae	Hyptis suaveolens	NA	Leaves, bark and root	Inflammation, gastric ulcer	[103]
Fabales	Fabaceae	Desmodium triflorum	LC	Leaves, bark and root	Sedative and anti-tumor	[104]
Malpighiales	Euphorbiaceae	Croton bonplandianum	NA	Leaves, bark and root	Antimicrobial, Anti-inflammatory Anticancer, Diuretic	[105]
Gentianales	Apocynaceae	Carissa sp.	NA	Fruits and leafy	Headache, rheumatism, rabies and diuretic	[106]
Gentianales	Apocynaceae	Vinca rosea	NA	Leaf and flower	Antihyperglycemic and hypertensive activity	[107]

NA: Not yet Assessed; LC: Least Concern; NT: Near Threatened; VE: Vulnerable ; LR: Lower Risk; EN: Endangered; DD: Data Deficient.

Shannon-Wiener diversity index of species richness (H) for the medicinal tree is 4.263 and evenness (E) is 0.972, whereas in medicinal herb species richness (H) was calculated as 3.284 and evenness (E) was 0.975 (Figure 3).

In addition to the floristic study, the present study enumerated the medicinally important plants in the study area which are used to cure different diseases. Totally 107 medicinal tree and herbs were identified in the wide campus. Of which 73% of trees and herbs are not assessed in IUCN red data list (Figure 4).

5. Conclusion

The primitive societies of India have been dependent on herbal medicines over a long period of time. In fact, all conventional systems of herbal based therapy had their roots and origin in folk medicines or asthma medicines. The knowledge of ethano botany plays a vital role in the primary health care and economy of tribal’s. Increasing populations of our country require the discovery of new herbal drugs to cure both endemic and epidemic diseases without side effects. India has been endowed with rich biodiversity which comprises of nearly 12% of the global plant wealth. Due to over exploitation of forest and urbanization, one-third of the plants are endemic and endangered. In the present study, various families of

flowering plants are identified in the study area (IIT-M campus). Cross verification of identified plants with IUCN Red data book confirmed the IIT-M wide campus is the shelter for nearly threaded (NT), vulnerable (VE) and endangered (ED) species of medicinal trees and herbs.

Acknowledgements

We would like to express a deep sense of gratitude to Prakrith, Environmental and IIT campus community for his valuable guidance and help. We also extend our thanks to wildlife club awareness team IIT-M online server providers and maintenance authorities for successful completion of this enumeration of plant diversity.

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Cite this paper

Nagarajan, A., Soorangkattan, S., Thangavel, K., Thulasinathan, B., Muthuramalingam, J.B. and Alagarsamy, A. (2017) Campus-Wide Floristic Diversity of Medicinal Plants in Indian Institute of Technology-Madras (IIT-M), Chennai. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 8, 2995-3012. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2017.812203

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