The term globalization refers to manifestation of an international network belonging to an economical as well as social system [1] . Known initial uses of the term “globalization” in 1930 designated for an overview of the human experience in education [1] . In 1873, a close-term “giant corporations” was used by Charles Russell Tazel to illustrate big national trusts and other large enterprises of the time [1] . Since 1960, both terms started to be used interchangeably by economists including researchers in social sciences and were used until about mid-1980 [1] . In due regard, the concept globalization inspired several interpretations including definitions such that it has had a history far back in time to great commercial and imperialist movements throughout Asia and the Indian Ocean since the fifteenth century [1] .

The term globalization was first spelt out in literature in mid-1940s but until 1980s, it was mentioned occasionally [1] . After the Cold War, globalization started to be used to express the world becoming highly interdependent on its economical as well as informational dimension [1] . Such definition was finely demonstrated whereby “Anthony Giddens uses the following definition: ‘the globalization can be defined as the intensification of social relations throughout the world, linking distant localities in such a way that local happenings are formed as a result of events that occur many miles away and vice versa’” ( [1] p. 138; [2] p. 1).

The genesis of the term was shown by some proponents who provided several phases or periods for the history of globalization. It was held by several proponents that:

“There have been several periodizations proposed for the history of globalization. The most wide-spread type is trinomial, which is sometimes considered to be the most logical. Gellner (1988), for example, believes that three periods are the optimum number for a periodization. Such an example is as follows: 1) Archaic globalization; 2) Early modern globalization; 3) Modern globalization (Hopkins 2003; Bayly, 2004). Trinomial periodizations are also used by those who suggest that globalization begins with the period of the Great Geographic Discoveries. For example, Friedman (2005) divides the history of globalization into three periods: “Globalization 1” (1492-1800), “Globalization 2” (1800-2000) and “Globalization 3” (2000-present). He states that Globalization 1 involves the globalization of countries, Globalization 2 involves the globalization of companies and Globalization 3 involves the globalization of individuals. However, the apparent convenience of trinomial periodizations does not necessarily mean that they are more relevant. We believe that the number of periods within the given periodization should rather be determined by the nature of the process in question” ( [3] p. 3).

However, such phases or stages were said to appear valid but were contested that by the start of the second half of the first millennium Before Christ (BC), many incidents did not only expand beyond regional echelons but also could be measured based on continental as well as transcontinental scales [3] . After all, before the first millennium BC some incidents had regional as well as continental impact [3] .

However, subsequent historical developments and analysis of globalizations are beyond the scope of this paper but suffices is to explain that in the last century, development of the world system, notably, after world wars and decolonization, was intimately associated with scientific information revolution of the last half of the last century [3] . That happened together with other processes that eventually led to rapid growth in globalization processes, in particular, those involving powerful financial flows as well as their qualitative transformation [3] . In due regard, the world became rigidly interconnected and was exhibited by global financial crisis in 2008 [3] . By terminal twentieth century, it was generally accepted that the world was experiencing globalization [3] .

Anthony Giddens classified globalization into four elements, namely, world capitalist economy, nation state system, world military order and global (international division of labour but a fifth [2] , culture, was added (Figure 1). Thus, it was argued that a rather basic aspect of globalization within institutional dimensions

may be referred to as cultural globalization [2] . The first four elements of globalization are not explained because they are beyond the scope of this paper.

There are cross-cultural contradictions of globalization as studied by many scientists, for example, I. Vallerstine; J. Stiglits; W. Bekon; Z. Bjezinskiy; G. Soros; and A. Utkin; M. Delyagin [4] . The said proponents stressed the objective nature of integration and differentiation, which authenticates development of unification trends and preserving cultural identity [4] . It was further upheld that the main carriers of globalization under the rubric “transnational corporations” develop their economic as well as political influence on all countries in the world such that interaction between state and public institutions is getting complicated plus the fact that prevailing mass culture threatens the natural cultural assortment [4] . Moreover, it was surmised that later on, extremely complicated cross-cultural relationships between countries in regard to their economic as well as political independence will lead to new synthetic types of cultural identity [4] . In another dimension, it was held that due to global informatization and corporatization, values of one culture will be imposed on global community that, in its turn, may cause unprecedented unification [4] . In fact, globalization opens up new big chances of scientific development, education, exchanging cultural values and globalization, while at the same time, it generates considerable cross-cultural threats [4] . In due regard, contradiction of modern cross-cultural processes is represented in creating different trends, notably, “integration and differentiation, which, in their turn, identify the dual-vector nature of civilized processes―unification and preserving cultural identity” ( [4] p. 24). Such pattern institutes the so called new global worldwide order, which portrays characteristics of a community with an irregular interaction [4] .

Toward the terminal phase of the nineteenth century, most anthropologists succinctly envisioned the modern notion of culture and the initial clear as well as comprehensive definition was promulgated by the British anthropologist, Sir Edward Taylor in 1871 as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of a society” ( [5] p. 479).

It has to be underscored that all culture is learned sooner than biologically inherited and indeed, culture is learned through growing up (from childhood) with it such that it is a process whereby it is transmitted from one generation to the next one, a pattern as enculturation [5] . In fact, the most important as well as basic factor in transmission and learning culture is greatly facilitated by the only human species undertaking, language [5] .

In another vein, “The means of public communication that reach large numbers of people/audience in a short time, such as television, newspapers, and magazines and radio etc. are called mass media” ( [5] p. 479). In casting the net wide, mass media can further be said as “… media created to be consumed by immense number of population worldwide and also a direct contemporary instrument of mass communication. Nonetheless mass media is considered as the fourth estate of the society as well as it is the fourth pillar of any democratic government. It is the voice and weapon of the people & the society as whole” ( [5] p. 479).

Mass media can be in form of broadcast media like in the case of television as well as radio or media can be print media such as newspapers as well as magazines [5] [6] . Emergence of technologies capable of transmitting messages via electromagnetic waves marked a turning point in advancing globalization of communications [6] . For example, in the nineteenth century, there appeared international news agencies like Reuters that paved the way for early stages of a global system of codification [6] . However, it was not until the 1960s with commencement of the first geo-stationary communication satellites that communication by electromagnetic transmission became fully global and thus, made globalization of communications distinguishing phenomena of the twentieth century [6] .

In addition, Internet media can be conceived of gaining media status and by the fact that many mass media outlets uphold web presence of benefitting from ready availability of Internet in many places around the world [5] . It is undeniably true that many people in the world depend upon media for news as well as entertainment such that globally, media is acclaimed to be a huge industry [5] . After all, comprehending mass media is normally key to understanding a population and culture, aspects that offer reasons that the field of media studies is greatly huge [5] . The history of media is illuminated through the last fifty years whereby media influence has grown supportively with technology advancement whereby first, there invention of telegraph followed by radio, newspapers, magazines, television and then currently the Internet [5] . Indeed, society is living solely depending on information and communication to maintain movement in the correct direction people’s daily undertakings such as work, entertainment, health care, education, personal relationships, traveling as well as any aspect that humans have to do [5] .

In the current human life ways, one of the most frequently employed terms to express socio-cultural changes as they are happening is modernisation [5] . Modernisation a term derived from Latin word modo, meaning “just now” literally refers to something “in the present time” with a dominant idea behind the concept as that of “becoming modern” such as North American as well as other industrial societies and holding the position that not to do so is to be stuck in the past, implying that being backward, inferior and needing to be improved but such submission is pervasive [5] . Moreover, modernisation is ostensibly defined as an all-embracing and global process of political as well as socio-economic change such that developing societies obtain some of the characteristics common to Western industrial societies [5] .

Modernisation process has four sub-processes that include technological development whereby in its course, traditional knowledge including techniques are diminished to give way to application of scientific knowledge together with techniques borrowed chiefly from the industrialsed West [5] . Other sub-processes include agricultural development, industrialization and urbanization marked by migration from rural settlements into urban areas or towns and cities [5] .

Moreover, in transition to post-modernity, mass media have moved from existing as one among institutions within the cultural environment to being the basis of humanity’s cultural environment [5] . In further development, social institutions have been subsumed as well as sieved through mass media such that mass media have replaced families as caretakers, worship places as authorities of cultural values, schools as sites of education and state as public agenda setters [5] .

The area mostly inhabited by Wasukuma is along south as well as west of Lake Victoria and it is composed of former administrative districts of Mwanza, Kwimba, Maswa and Shinyanga [7] [8] (Figure 1 & Figure 2). To date, the areas of domicile of Wasukuma ethnic group in Tanzania are Simiyu, Shinyanga, Geita, Shinyanga and Mwanza regions [8] . Thus, the said regions accommodate Wasukuma (literally calling themselves Basukuma as plural, while Msukuma denotes for singular and refers to their home area Busukuma [9] (see Figure 1). The term “Sukumaland” is sometimes used for Sukuma area [9] . It was submitted that the name “Sukuma” literally means “north,” but it has become the term of ethnic identification [9] . Moreover, Basukuma are probably best considered as a single Bantu language with several mutually intelligible dialects [9] . They include a seven-vowel system, use of tone, true negative tenses, class prefixes to indicate size and restriction of double prefixes to determine situations [9] .

Wasukuma ethnic group went through many transformations since the Sixteenth Century such that they began to be organized by hierarchical chiefdoms instead of villages [4] . Such transformations were reckoned during migration of Babinza, Bakwimba, Balongo, Bangolo, and Basega Sukuma population groups [1] [2] [4] . Such groups were highly accountable for strengthening barely populated areas in Lake Victoria region and local clans under their leadership [10] . Currently, their exogenous customs combined with indigenous people are considered Wasukuma [10] . Kisukuma word for chief, ntemi derives from verb kutema that plainly means to cut down trees or to clear bush or thicket [10] . Such behaviour pattern recalls the role of early chiefs in blessing land at commencement of each cultivation season when land was cleared and could also refer to

cutting short of arguments following an important discussion by village elders known in Kisukuma as banamhala ba nzengo [10] .

Currently, the major ethic group in Sukumaland is Wasukuma who happen to be the largest ethnic group in Tanzania, with an estimated 5.5 million representing about 16 percent of the country’s total population [10] . There are other ethnic groups that include Wanyamwezi and Wasumbwa who are mainly found in Kahama, Shinyanga region and Bukombe districts, Geita region [10] (Figure 2). Moreover, there are considerable numbers of Wanyiramba, Wataturu and Wahadzabe from neighbouring regions who have settled in Shinyanga rural, Shinyanga region and Meatu district, Simiyu region [10] . Most of the ethnic groups in the areas are Bantu believed to have moved into Tanzania during the Iron Age [11] . The dominant ethnic group, Wasukuma, is both agriculturists and livestock keepers [11] . There are also a few people of Arabic origin in Sukumaland mainly found in district and regional headquarters as well as trading centers engaged in trade [11] .

Wasukuma ethnic group, like other population groups in the country have not lived in isolation whereby they were in contact to visitors and foreigners such as Arab merchants, Indian traders, European explorers, European Christian missionaries two colonial administrations (the German and British). Such life patterns made Wasukuma transformed by Islam, Christianity as well as government control [see [7] ]. Thus, even their life patterns pertaining to preparations for marriage were changed from purely traditional by many to religious orientations.

Also they are living in an independent state that distinguished itself through the first phase government led by President Mwalimu Julius Nyerere whereby in 1961 after independence, it fostered cultural traditions and national culture as enshrined through the constitution with use of cultural medium, Kiswahili language. In fact, Mwalimu formulated a Ministry of National Culture so as to see to it there is molded national culture in the lime light of local cultural traditions. Thus, Wasukuma continued and continue to practice life ways that are also clearly exhibited by their being enculturated from colonial legacies, independence to globalization. Wasukuma are also accessing media in form of radio broadcasts, newspapers, mobile telephone and a few access Internet in urban as well as peri-urban and trade centres. In due regard, this study sought to analyse the predicament of Wasukuma young men in getting their fiancées amidst such marked cultural transformations as exhibited in the current globalizing world.

The Main Objective was to assess the manner former Wasukuma young men used mega-stone objects in selecting prospective fiancées and compare with the current trend of using media in some areas of Bariadi district, Simiyu region.

Specific Objectives included the following:

To relocate tangible cultural heritage resources (mega-stones) used by Wasukuma young men in former times in getting fiancées in Simiyu region;

To identify media used by Wasukuma young men of today to communicate in a bid to get fiancées in Simiyu region; and

To present suggestions for pertinent protection, conservation as well as presentation of cultural heritage resources (mega-stones) that were used by Wasukuma young men.

The following research questions guided the study:

Where are tangible cultural heritage resources (mega-stones) used by Wasukuma young men in former times for getting fiancées in Simiyu region?

What media outlets are used by Wasukuma young men of today to communicate in a bid to get fiancées in Simiyu region?

What are mechanisms for pertinent protection, conservation as well as presentation of cultural heritage resources (mega-stones) used by Wasukuma young men in former times in getting fiancées?

Theories of globalization emerged in the last twenty years of the twentieth century [for example, Nederveen Pieterse, 2006, 2012; Robertson, 1992, Robertson and Khondker, 1998; Therborn, 2000; Turner and Khondker, 2010 cited in ( [12] p. 8)]. As a result of themes of connectivity, diversity as well as unevenness in addressing multiple modernization patterns and the world, systems theories were included into globalization theories [12] . In due regard, the following four sequences hold in discussion of social transformation in the first ten years of this century: globalization as trans-historical process; globalization as global modernization (after Giddens; globalization as a critical discourse of neoliberal globalization; and globalization as glocalization [12] . Furthermore, “the term ‘glocal’ and the process noun ‘glocalization’ are ‘formed by telescoping global and local to make a blend’ [The Oxford Dictionary of New Words, 1991: 134 quoted in Robertson, 1995: 28 cited in ( [12] p. 10)]. The term glocalization was modeled on the Japanese word dochakuka, which at first meant adapting farming techniques to one’s own local condition [12] . Moreover, in business spheres, the idea was adopted to refer to global localization [12] and it is the fact that the term including the idea came from Japan [12] . Thus, ‘According to Wordspy, glocalization means ‘the creation of products or services intended for the global market, but customized to suit the local cultures’” [12] . Even though the term glocalization got frequent use since the late 1980s, there were several similar terms that social scientists used as well as continue to use and they include a related word, indigenization, which has been utilized in social sciences and related fields for quite some time.

However, the idea of indigenization has produced quite some kind of controversy in social scientists circles because it casts doubts pertaining to fundamental aspects about generalizability of social science ideas including concepts [12] . But some proponents provide a safe stance by suggesting that indigenization can be viewed to be similar to localization whereby there is an assumption of an original or authentic locality or indigenous system [12] .

Thus, a better aspect is the following submission, “One of the consequences of globalization is that it opens up doubts about the originality and authenticity of cultures. If one takes a long-term view of globalization, ‘locality’ or ‘local’ itself is a consequence of globalization. Today, there are hardly any longer sites or cultures in the sense of societies that can be seen as isolated or unconnected from global, transnational processes” ( [12] p. 8).

In due course, theories of modernization were under serious criticisms in sociology due to assumptions such as unilinearity as well as convergence [12] . With increased knowledge through time, many authorities noted that such cultural differences are not all that superficial and non-linearity as well as multi-linearity are better descriptions of global modernity [12] .

Through time, it was argued that globalization and/or glocalization should be viewed to be an interdependent process such that globalization of the local and localization of globality can be articulated as twin processes of macro-localization and micro-globalization [12] . The former involves expansion of boundaries of locality including making local ideas, practices as well as institutions global [12] . For example, worldwide growth of religious or ethnic revivalist movements can be viewed as examples of macro-localization [12] . On the other hand, the latter, micro-globalization, involves including certain global processes in local setting [12] . For instance, ecological movements emerge in certain local contexts such that later on through time as practices, they spread far beyond the locality of origin into a large area and historical ground [12] . In due regard, globalization is at the same time glocalization [12] .

In fact, suggestions of glocalization are closely similar to propositions pertaining to globalization illuminated as follows: “1) Diversity is the essence of social life; 2) globalization does not erase all local differences even in the long run; 3) autonomy of history and culture gives a sense of uniqueness to the experiences of groups of people whether we define them as cultures, societies, or nations; 4) glocalization and the research results linked to this strand remove the fear from many that globalization is like a tidal wave erasing all differences and flattening the world” ( [12] p. 8).

In due regard, the submission illuminates the theory of connected but differentiated modernization that can be further developed by cultural as well as structural comparisons so as to identify different collections of institutions and their relationships [12] . The importance of culture is evaluated differently during change of structures and thus, in today’s global society, culture plays a significant role responsible for diverse dynamics [12] . Thus, each can be distinguished by certain kinds of societies of the North and the South or within society of various cultural settings [12] . Thus, in regard to this study, globalization and glocalization as theoretical stances stood to be a helping hand in discerning about Wasukuma young on matters pertaining to get expected spouses through cultural transformations of today, globalization and glocalization.

The term mediatization has been used to characterize influence media exert on a variety of phenomena [13] . Mediatization concept has been used to specify the role of media in social change through four types of processes whereby media change human communication and interaction [13] . The said four processes include the following: media extend human communication abilities in spatial and temporal arena; media substitute social activities that formerly happened face-to-face like Internet banking has replaced physical meeting between bank staff and clients; media bring about a combination of activities such as the fact that face-to-face communication combines with mediated communication and media infiltrate into people’s daily life ways; and actors in numerous diverse sectors have to adapt their behavior patterns to accommodate media evaluations, formats as well as schedules [13] . Mediatization has been conceived as a continuing process whereby the media change human relations as well as behaviour and thus, media change society and culture [13] .

It is true that social interaction consist of two aspects, namely communication and action [13] . Definitely, the media are means of communication―they involve an exchange of meaning between two or more parties [13] . In due regard, by communicating, people exchange not only information, but also they influence one another and their mutual relationship(s) by, for instance, promising, confirming, rejecting, deciding and so on [13] . Besides acts of communication, media also allow forms of social action that once required both parties’ physical presence, for example, one can purchase or sell or work or play [13] . In another vein, media may also interact with other actions outside the media like elections [13] . In consideration to object of this study, mediatization concept permitted to analyse such communication and action(s) that Wasukuma young men of today use media to get their expected spouses.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory was developed by Abraham Maslow in his paper, “A Theory of Human Motivation whereby he used terms Physiological, Safety, Belongingness and Love, Self-Esteem, Self-Actualization and Self-Transcendence needs to express a pattern human motivation generally go through” [14] . Although it faced some criticisms, the theory was deemed good for this study.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is often presented in a pyramid shape with the largest, most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization at the top (Figure 3) [14] . The theory has five levels and the most fundamental as well as basic four levels of the pyramid portray aspects Maslow called “deficiency needs” or “d-need,” namely, esteem, friendship as well as love, security and physical needs [14] . It was held that if such “deficiency needs” are not met with the exception of the most fundamental (physiological) need, there may not be a physical indication, but the individual will feel anxious as well as tense [14] . The theory proposes that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly want (or focus motivation upon) secondary or higher level needs [14] . Furthermore, Maslow coined the term meta-motivation to express motivation that go beyond scope of basic needs and struggle for constant betterment [14] .

In casting the net wide, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory can be discerned as follows: as long as physiological needs are satisfied [14] In addition, safety or security become the predominant need, for safety and security represents the

need to be free or fear from physical danger, the need to be free from deprivation of basic physiological needs as well as the need for self-preservation [14] . The next level is social or affiliation need whereby it will surface as the predominant one to be satisfied and such need is characterized by belonging to as well as being accepted by various groups [4] . Thus, social need represents struggling for meaningful relationships [14] , for example, love. In addition, once need for social affiliation is initially satisfied, the person wants further personal recognition as well as feels the need for esteem or recognition [14] . In due regard, satisfaction of the need for esteem bears feelings of self-confidence, prestige, power as well as control and thus, individuals feel useful as well as feel that they have some affect on their environment [14] . By satisfying the need for self-esteem, self-actualization becomes the dominant need and it represents the need to maximize a person’s potential as well as to become what one is capable of becoming [14] . Pertaining to this study, Maslow’s theory of need, through level three, for example, pertaining to social needs, it was very important in finding out whether or not Wasukuma young men’s need could be tracked through in their search for finding would be permanent life partners.