In country like India, the groundwater is widely used for drinking purposes. In central India, the groundwater is hard and contaminated with F? and other elements above the permissible limits and found to be linked with prevalence of the fluorosis diseases. In this work, the groundwater quality Balod district, Chhattisgarh, India is investigated for assessment of water quality for drinking purposes. The concentration (n = 50) of F? was ranged from 1.5 - 14.0 mg/L with mean value of 3.9 ± 0.8 mg/L. The causes of prevalence of skeleton fluorosis in human of the studied area are described.
Ground Water Quality Fluoride Skeleton Fluorosis1. Introduction
Ground water is an important resource for drinking agriculture purposes. Groundwater uses and applications are often related to its composition, which is increasingly influenced by human activities. In fact the water quality of groundwater was affected by many factors including precipitation, surface runoff, groundwater flow, and the characteristics of the catchment area. The over extraction of groundwater caused huge weathering of the metamorphic rocks. In several regions of the country, the groundwater was contaminated with F− beyond permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L with linking of fluorosis diseases in human [1] - [15] . The Balod district, Chhattisgarh, India is a rice producing area, taking multiple crops by using the water resources. The water is hard with contamination of F−, Cl− and Fe at hazardous levels. In this work, the groundwater quality of Balod district (area ≈ 4000 km2) is described.
2. Materials and Methods2.1. Study Area
The Balod district included five blocks: Balod, Gurur, Gunderdehi, Dondi Lohara and Dondi. The area of the district is ≈4000 km2 with population of 1.3 million. The materials i.e. buildings, metals, pipes, etc. are corroded due to acidic nature of water. The residents of the studied area were suffering with the fluorosis diseases due to mineralization of F−. In present investigation, the Balod district of Chhattisgarh state, central India has been selected for groundwater quality studies to assess the contaminants.
2.2. Sampling and Hydrological Parameters
The groundwater sampling network, based on water uses and contamination sources is shown in Figure 1. The hydrological parameters (i.e. age and depth) of 50 tube wells were recorded in January 2016. The water sample was collected in the cleaned narrow polyethylene 250-mL bottle in duplicate during January 2016 [16] . The physical parameters i.e. temperature (T), pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), reduction potential (RP) and electrical conductivity (EC) were measured at the spot. The samples were dispatched to the laboratory for the analysis by subsequent refrigerating at −4˚C.
2.3. Analysis
The total dissolved solid (TDS) was determined by the evaporation method. The total hardness (TH) value of the
Sampling location in Balod district, Chhattisgarh, India
water was analyzed by the titration method [17] . The F− content of the water was monitored by the Metrohm ion meter-781 using the CDTA buffer in a 1:1 volume ratio. The content of other ions were measured by the Dionex ion chromatography-1100 equipped with appropriate anion and cation exchange columns and conductivity detector. The Fe content was analyzed by using the GBC flame AAS. The sources of the contaminants in the water were apportioned by the statistical analysis.
3. Results and Discussion3.1. Physical Characteristics of Tube Well and Water
The physical parameters (i.e. age and depth of tube wells) and habitant population were recorded with the help of public health engineering department, and data are presented in Table 1. The total population residing in the studied is ≈130000. The age and depth of tube wells were ranged from 4 - 25 Yr and 37 - 85 m with mean value of 11.6 ± 1.5 Yr and 50 ± 3 m, respectively. The most of tube wells of the studied area are young with shallow depth. The higher population density is observed in the Balod town. The value of T, pH, DO, RP, EC, TDS and TH of the water (n = 50) was ranged from 23˚C - 28˚C, 6.1 - 8.6, 10 - 12 mg/L, 146 - 298 mV, 101 - 1278 μS/cm, 470 - 3018 mg/L and 60 - 732 mg/L with mean value of 25.0˚C ± 0.3˚C, 7.4 ± 0.2, 10.9 ± 0.2 mg/L, 212 ± 7 mV, 506 ± 70 μS/cm, 1345 ± 180 mg/L and 210 ± 35 mg/L, respectively.
3.2. Chemical Characteristics of Water
The chemical characteristics of the groundwater are presented in Table 2 and Table 3. The concentration of F−, Cl−, , , , Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+ and Fe was ranged from 1.5 - 14.0, 33 - 655, 4.0 - 106, 10 - 130, 1.0 - 2.9, 28 - 157, 3.0 - 48, 2.0 - 26.5, 24 - 216 and 0.4 - 4.5 mg/L with mean value of 3.9 ± 0.8, 190 ± 44, 30 ± 5, 47 ± 10, 1.5 ± 0.1, 79 ± 9, 14 ± 3, 6.5 ± 1.4, 82 ± 12 and 0.8 ± 0.2 mg/L, respectively. The ion concentration in the water was found to occur in following increasing order: Fe < < F− < Mg2+ < K+ < < < Ca2+< Cl−. The F− content in the water of the studied area was found to be higher than reported in other parts of the country [1] - [15] .
3.3. Spatial Variation in Water Quality
The spatial variation in physiochemical parameters of the water is shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. The water was found to be acidic in the Gurur block. The remarkably high content of F−, Cl−, Na+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ was marked in the water of Gunderdehi block. However, the water of two blocks i.e. Dondi and Dondi Lohara becomes reddish when exposed to the air due to hydrolysis of the Fe(III) into oxides and hydroxides.
3.4. Sources of Contaminants in Water
The correlation matrix of elements in the water of Gunderdehi block is summarized in Table 4. The content of F− ions had good correlation with the, Na+, K+ and Mg2+ ions, indicating existence of F− in the geo media as Barberiite, bararite, ferruccite, sellatite, cryolite, hieratite, etc. Other ions i.e. Cl−, , Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ were partially correlated, showing origin from multiple sources i.e. geogenic, mining, agriculture, etc.
3.5. Toxicities
Three elements i.e. F−, Fe and Ca2+ were found in all locations above permissible limit of 1.5, 0.3 and 75 mg/L, respectively [18] [19] . In Gunderdehi block, Cl− was found at hazardous levels, >250 mg/L, may be due to mineralization. The skeletal fluorosis (i.e. hyperostosis, osteopetrosis and osteoporosis) was observed due to long term ingestion of F−contaminated water by the residents of the studied area, Figure 4.
4. Conclusion
The groundwater of the Balod district, Chhattisgarh, central India was found to be contaminated with Fe, F−, Cl− and Ca2+ above permissible limits, which rendering water not suitable for the drinking purposes. The higher prevalence rate of fluorosis diseases was observed in the Gunderdehi and Balod blocks.
Details of tube wells and population exposed to F<sup>−</sup> contamination
S. No.
Location
Block
Age of tube well, Yr
Depth of tube well, m
Population exposed to F− contamination
1
Chitoud
Gurur
10
46
2500
2
Mirritola
12
46
2000
3
Boridkala
8
55
2100
4
Userwara
10
61
2400
5
Kaneri
8
55
1800
6
Bhulandabari
25
46
2000
7
Dhaneli
8
49
2300
8
Ranitarai
Balod
12
40
2100
9
Balod
9
61
18,000
10
Madwapathra
7
46
1200
11
Malganv
13
61
1300
12
Malganv
10
46
1300
13
Malganv
17
76
1300
14
Umerdhah
12
40
2500
15
Shikosha
Gunderdehi
7
46
2500
16
Limora
20
46
1500
17
Rangakatora
25
55
2400
18
Kachandur
12
46
2600
19
Gureda
10
61
2800
20
Gureda
8
46
2800
21
Gureda
10
55
2800
22
Gureda
15
46
2800
23
Shikola
10
37
2100
24
Parna
7
61
2400
25
Parna
12
46
2400
26
Naharkhapari
10
55
2500
27
Dondi
Dondi
15
37
4000
28
Kamta
5
46
1800
29
Awari
8
37
2000
30
Pusawad
13
55
1500
31
Kuwagondi
20
46
1300
32
Surdongar
8
85
1200
33
Dighwari
5
46
900
34
Chihero
4
61
1200
35
Aamadula
25
46
1900
36
Gudum
10
43
2300
37
Khairwahi
10
76
1100
38
Parsuli
Dondi Lohara
15
46
2500
39
Bharda
12
46
1200
40
Bhaihakuwa
5
46
1100
41
Jatadhah
8
55
1200
42
Sahganv
10
61
1000
43
Gainji
15
46
1200
44
Shikaritola
7
40
1500
45
Armurkasa
13
43
1800
46
Patratola
5
37
1700
47
Chikhalakasa
17
55
2300
48
Dalli-Rajhara
25
37
20,000
49
Borid
8
55
1500
50
Gujra
10
55
2000
Physical parameters of ground water in January, 2016
S. No.
T ˚C
pH
EC, μS/cm
TDS, mg/L
TH, mg/L
DO, mg/L
RP, mV
1
23
7.4
802
599
183
11
196
2
23
6.9
213
498
174
10
206
3
24
7.2
530
1001
187
11
211
4
25
7.2
417
1218
155
11
219
5
25
7
310
1417
141
10
224
6
24
7.5
833
1990
208
11
179
7
24
7.7
535
1616
236
11
168
8
24
7.9
546
470
201
11
225
9
26
7.4
1171
650
495
11
298
10
24
6.6
224
971
105
11
215
11
25
6.1
271
1133
115
11
225
12
23
6.6
345
2796
135
11
217
13
25
7.2
490
1353
155
11
196
14
25
7.9
491
1220
204
11
193
15
25
7.4
338
677
176
10
188
16
25
7.8
594
644
234
11
201
17
24
7.7
884
1161
348
11
205
18
24
8
412
735
184
10
198
19
24
7.9
390
1027
155
12
250
20
25
8
420
667
187
12
219
21
25
8.1
509
1038
216
11
221
22
25
7.4
490
1149
169
12
218
23
25
7.4
1278
616
540
12
259
24
24
8.1
702
901
345
11
146
25
24
8.2
698
2110
295
10
201
26
24
7.7
535
866
198
10
198
27
25
6.8
1069
816
395
11
296
28
28
6.4
481
751
150
11
206
29
24
6.5
212
910
75
11
202
30
27
6.8
135
1640
145
11
209
31
25
6.4
460
2288
205
11
219
32
24
6.5
167
1085
75
11
232
33
25
6.6
437
949
120
10
211
34
25
6.1
141
2612
65
11
230
35
25
7.2
413
1460
175
11
210
36
23
7.4
520
852
247
11
211
37
25
7.8
644
1440
185
10
184
38
25
8.6
502
2066
732
12
248
39
25
7.5
394
956
145
10
221
40
26
6.9
215
1928
112
11
211
41
25
7.5
529
1641
210
10
201
42
25
7.6
862
2050
456
11
205
43
25
8
425
1232
230
11
186
44
24
7.7
371
1856
142
10
202
45
26
7.7
515
2414
185
11
215
46
26
7.7
487
3018
160
11
217
47
25
7.6
642
2083
182
11
199
48
25
8
101
2381
60
10
205
49
25
7.8
655
841
213
11
213
50
25
7.3
509
1504
105
12
210
Distribution of ions in groundwater during January, 2016, mg/L
S. No.
F−
Cl−
Na+
K+
Mg2+
Ca2+
Fe
1
1.9
60
22
19
2.9
50
8
3.8
75
0.51
2
1.8
51
10
16
2.6
52
13
3.3
69
0.63
3
2.0
124
50
10
1.4
57
7
4.5
79
0.71
4
1.9
132
96
14
2.3
89
14
4.1
65
0.69
5
1.9
164
90
55
1.0
63
28
4.3
56
0.75
6
3.0
330
92
31
1.7
111
6
7.2
83
0.66
7
5.8
256
10
11
1.0
105
48
8.9
94
0.49
8
4.6
503
32
31
1.2
123
13
7.1
80
0.59
9
14
470
100
22
2.2
60
13
4.1
198
0.48
10
3.9
33
10
36
1.1
50
14
7.7
42
0.43
11
4.7
77
14
17
1.1
45
17
8
46
0.4
12
6.5
111
36
37
1.3
60
8
11.3
54
0.46
13
8.6
102
48
41
1.4
89
15
11.9
62
0.42
14
7.2
73
96
55
1.2
153
20
3.5
83
0.51
15
3.6
80
12
17
1.2
89
8
4.5
70
0.52
16
2.7
230
44
19
1.0
89
8
3.4
94
0.49
17
1.9
372
86
42
1.0
40
5
2.9
139
0.51
18
2.4
107
34
36
1.1
57
5
3.2
74
0.74
19
2.1
460
18
12
1.0
73
12
3.5
62
0.66
20
7.6
260
20
18
1.4
142
26
8.3
75
0.72
21
3.1
340
114
45
1.2
77
16
4.2
84
0.68
22
12
90
20
26
2.5
129
39
26.5
68
0.78
23
11
99
30
54
2.6
153
32
23.9
216
0.64
24
4.2
413
54
17
1.2
157
15
6.4
138
0.48
25
4.0
655
68
19
1.0
105
11
5.9
138
0.51
26
4.1
410
52
24
1.1
110
9
6.3
79
4.23
27
1.8
529
108
24
1.2
94
14
3.1
158
0.59
28
3.8
210
50
29
1.5
81
10
7.2
60
0.81
29
1.5
59
10
66
1.6
45
11
2.8
30
0.76
30
3.2
40
10
37
1.1
48
12
6.5
58
0.69
31
4.0
165
42
22
2.3
52
12
8.1
82
1.51
32
2.0
40
10
106
1.0
40
11
6
30
0.72
33
2.0
130
32
23
1.0
93
11
3.2
48
0.53
34
1.9
68
24
41
1.0
48
11
2.6
26
0.51
35
5.4
101
34
19
2.3
64
44
8.5
70
0.72
36
1.7
65
16
33
1.5
76
3
6.7
79
0.65
37
4.9
147
24
35
1.3
105
8
8.9
74
0.43
38
4.9
136
17
52
1.8
86
4
23.4
178
0.49
39
1.8
74
130
41
1.0
45
31
2.3
58
0.57
40
2.0
56
12
16
1.0
60
11
3.4
45
0.66
41
5.5
108
46
4
1.4
36
8
8.9
84
0.45
42
3.5
288
92
31
1.2
93
7
6.7
182
0.51
43
3.4
61
30
23
1.2
68
7
4.1
92
0.42
44
2.1
85
24
22
2.1
73
5
3.9
57
2.04
45
3.4
40
36
24
1.1
64
5
4.0
74
0.78
46
2.2
91
34
26
2.0
77
6
3.1
64
4.53
47
1.7
249
118
31
1.0
57
14
2.8
73
0.87
48
1.8
510
114
16
1.5
81
14
2.0
24
0.65
49
2.2
155
58
23
1.1
28
7
3.6
85
0.71
50
3.3
110
34
10
2.2
101
12
3.9
42
0.62
Spatial variation in physical parameters of water
Spatial variation in chemical parameters of water
Correlation matrix of elements in groundwater of Gunderdehi block
F−
Cl−
Na+
K+
Mg2+
Ca2+
Fe
F−
1.00
Cl−
−0.46
1.00
−0.41
0.49
1.00
0.23
−0.32
0.45
1.00
Na+
0.73
−0.09
−0.34
−0.13
1.00
K+
0.96
−0.37
−0.31
0.20
0.70
1.00
Mg2+
0.96
−0.46
−0.35
0.33
0.62
0.91
1.00
Ca2+
0.28
0.09
0.23
0.55
0.36
0.20
0.35
1.00
Fe
−0.11
0.13
0.24
0.27
0.20
−0.10
0.01
0.09
1.00
0.94
−0.58
−0.37
0.43
0.59
0.89
0.98
0.40
0.10
1.00
Skelton fluorosis in the studied area, Balod district, India.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to the UGC, New Delhi for awarding the Rajiv Gandhi fellowship to three authors: KPR, BLS and SR.
Cite this paper
Ankit Yadav,Yaman Kumar Sahu,Keshaw Prakash Rajhans,Pravin Kumar Sahu,Suryakant Chakradhari,Bharat Lal Sahu,Shobhana Ramteke,Khageshwar Singh Patel, (2016) Fluoride Contamination of Groundwater and Skeleton Fluorosis in Central India. Journal of Environmental Protection,07,784-792. doi: 10.4236/jep.2016.76071
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