Located on the Bafing River 90 km southeast of Bafoulabé, in the Kayes region of Mali, the Manantali Dam was designed to control flooding while providing a water reserve to ensure the stability of various economic activities, such as water supply, irrigation, flood recession agriculture, hydroelectric power generation, and river navigation. Controlling approximately 50% of the upstream watershed of the Senegal River, the dam has a storage capacity of nearly 12 billion cubic meters. The dam is equipped with a hydroelectric power plant comprising five units and was commissioned between 2001 and 2002. The dam has a total crest length of 1,495 m and consists of a concrete structure that houses the hydraulic structures (spillway, bottom outlets, surge basin, and water intakes), as well as two side dikes. The plant is equipped with five units of 40 MW each, giving an installed capacity of 200 MW, with an expected average annual production of around 807 GWh, corresponding to a load factor of 46% (Faye, Ndao, & Sambou, 2024b).

The high-voltage (HV) transmission network, known as the “Manantali Interconnected Network” (RIMA), connects Mali, Mauritania, and Senegal. It is powered by the Manantali, Gouïna, and Félou hydroelectric power plants and comprises (CIMA, 2017): High-voltage lines: a total of 2312 km distributed as follows: 2055 km of 225 kV lines; 22 km of 150 kV lines; 235 km of 90 kV lines. There are 18 transformer stations distributed as follows: 6 stations in Mauritania (Rosso, Nouakchott, Boghé, Kaédi, Sélibaby, and Gouraye); 6 substations in Senegal (Tobène, Sakal, Dagana, Matam, Bakel, and Tambacounda); 6 substations in Mali (Manantali, Kita, Kodialani, Félou, Kayes Médine, and Gouina). In addition, there are fiber optic backup cables and a dispatching center in Manantali. The RIMA and the electricity networks of the National Electricity Companies of Mali, Mauritania, and Senegal constitute the OMVS Interconnected Network (RIO) (Faye, Ndao, & Sambou, 2024b).

The operation of hydroelectric facilities has an impact on the local and regional environment, raising important ecological, social, and economic issues. These issues translate into positive and negative impacts (Treabaol & Chabal, 2003).

The environmental analysis carried out during the operational phase of the Manantali hydroelectric facilities and structures identified 16 significant environmental aspects (SEAs), both positive and negative and for controlling all the SEAs, mitigation and/or mitigation measures are proposed. These SEAs were identified on the basis of environmental monitoring data (electromagnetic fields, noise levels, light levels, PM10, PM2.5, 1, etc.), a waste inventory, and the physico-chemical and biological analysis of water quality (Faye, Ndao, & Sambou, 2024b), and following an assessment of environmental impacts based on a three-level rating grid taking into account legal, environmental, economic and influence aspects (Faye, 2024). The grouping into nine environmental management categories (EMCs) is based on thematic similarity and management coherence: EAS relating to energy use and efficiency are grouped under EMC 1; waste under EMC 2; pollution/nuisances and living conditions under EMC 3; water resources and water quality under EMC 4; biodiversity under SME 5; soil and subsoil contamination under SME 6; health and safety under SME 7; climate-related risks and adaptation under SME 8; and cross-cutting compliance, monitoring and performance evaluation under SME 9.

These measures are inspired by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the aspirations and goals of the African Union’s Agenda 2063 and are formulated in Environmental Management Programs (EMPs). For the applicability of EMPs in all other hydroelectric facilities and structures to be built in the OMVS area and around the world for the operational phases, an RBM approach is applied.

RBM is based on a chronological intervention logic: activities are carried out using available resources and produce immediate results called “outputs (EX)” which enable the change noted as “effect (EF)” to be achieved using these “outputs (EX)”. If the “effect (EF)” is achieved, it means that the intermediate results have been achieved. This, in turn, contributes to the achievement of the final results called “objectives,” which are correlated with the EMPs. For each objective, objectively verifiable indicators (OVIs) are determined, and for each effect and output, OVIs, means of verification, and assumptions/risks have been determined (COTA, 2007).

The operational assessment identified 16 significant environmental aspects (SEAs). Based on the mitigation and management measures associated with these SEAs, nine SMEs are proposed as a management framework. The selection of these nine SMEs results from the grouping of management needs that are thematically similar and operationally consistent; it should not be interpreted as evidence that nine programs have already been implemented or that measurable results have already been achieved. Thus, the ranking of mitigation and/or management measures resulting from the SEA analysis has identified nine (9) EMPs, which are presented in Table 1. For each program, the corresponding SDGs and the aspirations, goals and priority areas of the African Union’s Agenda 23 have been determined (Table 1).

The percentages defined at the IOV level in this study are target values, not outcomes; prior to implementation, each target must be associated with a baseline value.

Table 1. Environmental management programs (EMPs).

Optimization of Energy Resources

Table 2 summarizes the relationships between the EMP, the SDGs, and the aspirations, goals, and priority areas of the African Union’s Agenda 2063. For EMP 1, this is SDG 7; aspiration 1, goal 7, and the priority area associated with goal 7 of the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

Table 2. Relationship between EMP 1, the SDGs, and the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

This EMP, which focuses on optimising energy resources, has the overall objective of optimising energy resources. To achieve this objective, two main outcomes have been identified:

1) EF 1.1: Electricity and fuel consumption are managed efficiently;

2) EF 1.2: The carbon footprint and CO₂ emissions are reduced.

To implement the desired changes (outcomes), three outputs are required:

1) EX 1.1.1: Local communities have access to energy and are made aware of the need for its rational management;

2) EX-1.1.2: The performance of equipment is periodically monitored and analysed through energy audits;

3) EX-1.2.1: Carbon offset programs and their monitoring mechanisms are implemented and evaluated.

To achieve these outputs, several activities have been identified, the implementation of which will ultimately optimise energy resources (Table 3).

Table 3. EMP: Optimization of energy resources.

WasteManagement

Table 4 summarizes the existing relationships between the EMP, the SDGs, and the aspirations, goals, and priority areas of the African Union’s Agenda 2063. For EMP 2, this is SDG 12; aspiration 1, goal 7 and the priority area associated with goal 7 of the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

Table 4. Relationship between the EMP 2, the SDGs, and the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

This EMP, related to waste management, has the overall objective of ensuring that waste is managed in an environmentally sound manner in order to limit pollution. To achieve this objective, two (2) main effects have been identified:

1) EF-2.1: Waste production is significantly reduced;

2) EF-2.2: Waste recycling/recovery is promoted.

To achieve the desired changes (effects), six outputs are required:

1) EX-2.1.1: The waste management program, including prevention, reduction, recycling, and reuse strategies, is implemented;

2) EX-2.1.2: Responsible product management and purchasing procedures and policies are implemented;

3) EX-2.1.3: The information, education, and communication (IEC) program on sustainable development is communicated and implemented;

4) EX-2.2.1: Landfills and/or technical landfill sites and incinerators are compliant;

5) EX-2.2.2: Waste is sorted at source;

6) EX-2.2.3: Waste is treated, recycled, and recovered.

To achieve immediate results (outputs), several activities have been identified, the implementation of which will ultimately lead to better waste management (Table 5).

Table 5. EMP: Waste management.

PollutionManagementandImprovementof theLiving Environment

Table 6 summarizes the relationships between the EMP, the SDGs, and the aspirations, goals, and priority areas of the African Union’s Agenda 2063. For EMP 3, these are SDGs 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, and 8; aspirations 1 and 6; goals 1, 4, 5, 7, 17, and 18; and priority areas associated with the goals of the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

Table 6. Relationship between EMP 3 and the SDGs and the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

This EMP, linked to nuisance management and improvement of the living environment, has the overall objective of reducing nuisances and improving the living environment for surrounding populations. To achieve this objective, two main effects have been identified:

1) EF-3.1: Nuisances related to the operation of RIMA facilities are limited;

2) EF-3.2: The living environment for surrounding populations is improved.

To achieve the desired changes (effect), eight outputs are required:

1) EX-3.1.1: An inventory is carried out based on an assessment of sensitivity to nuisances;

2) EX-3.1.2: Environmental measurements are taken at regular intervals, and mitigation measures are implemented;

3) EX-3.1.3: Complaints from interested parties are addressed;

4) EX-3.1.4: The emergency plan is communicated, and emergency tests are carried out;

5) EX-3.2.1: Development programs are developed and funded;

6) EX-3.2.2: Awareness programs on all forms of discrimination, violence, etc. are developed and communicated;

7) EX-3.2.3: Educational institutions are established;

8) EX-3.2.4: Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is implemented in accordance with ISO 26000 (Guidelines on social responsibility, AFNOR, 2010).

To achieve immediate results (outputs), several activities have been identified, the implementation of which will ultimately enable better management of pollution and improve the living environment (Table 7).

Table 7. EMP: Managing nuisances and improving the living environment.

WaterManagement

Table 8 summarizes the existing relationships between the EMP, the SDGs, and the aspirations, goals, and priority areas of the African Union’s Agenda 2063. For EMP 4, this is SDG 6; aspiration 1, goal 7, and the priority area associated with goal 7 of the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

Table 8. Relationship between EMP 4 and the SDGs and the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

This EMP, related to water management, has the overall objective of optimizing water quantity and quality management. To achieve this objective, three main effects have been identified:

1) EF-4.1: Water quality is guaranteed;

2) EF-4.2: Wastewater pollution is reduced;

3) EF-4.3: The quantity of water required for all uses is guaranteed.

To achieve the desired changes (effects), eight outputs are required:

1) EX-4.1.1: A limnology laboratory meeting international standards is set up;

2) EX-4.1.2: Limnological measurement programs are developed and followed;

3) EX-4.1.3: Drinking water treatment systems are automated;

4) EX-4.2.1: All wastewater settling basins are operational;

5) EX-4.2.2: All sources of pollution are identified and treated;

6) EX-4.3.1: Local populations have access to drinking water;

7) EX-4.4.1: Hydroelectric production operations are optimized;

7) EX-4.4.2: The objectives of the Permanent Water Commission are achieved.

To achieve immediate results (outputs), several activities have been identified, the implementation of which will ultimately lead to better water management (Table 9).

Table 9. EMP: Water management.

BiodiversityManagement

Table 10 summarizes the relationships between the EMP, the SDGs, and the aspirations, goals, and priority areas of the African Union’s Agenda 2063. For EMP 5, this is SDG 15; aspiration 1, goal 7, and the priority area associated with goal 7 of the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

Table 10. Relationship between EMP 5, the SDGs, and the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

This EMP is linked to biodiversity management. To achieve this objective, one main effect has been identified:

1) EF-5.1: Fauna and flora are maintained.

To achieve the desired changes (effect), three outputs are necessary:

1) EX-5.1.1: Reforestation programs are implemented;

2) EX-5.1.2: Biological monitoring programs are put in place;

3) EX-5.1.3: Campaigns to eradicate invasive alien species are planned.

To achieve immediate results (outputs), several activities have been identified, the implementation of which will ultimately enable better management of biodiversity (Table 11).

Table 11. EMP: Biodiversity management.

CombatingSoil Pollution

Table 12 summarizes the relationships between the EMP, the SDGs, and the aspirations, goals, and priority areas of the African Union’s Agenda 2063. For GEP 6, these are SDG 15; aspiration 1, goals 5 and 7, and the priority areas associated with the goals of the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

Table 12. Relationship between EMP 6, the SDGs, and the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

This EMP, linked to the fight against soil and subsoil pollution, has the overall objective of protecting soils and subsoils from all pollution. To achieve this objective, two main effects have been identified:

1) EF-6.1: Reactive measures to combat soil pollution are under control;

2) EF-6.2: Measures to prevent soil pollution have been proven.

To achieve the desired changes (effect), four outputs are required:

1) EX-6.1.1: All contaminated soils are treated;

2) EX-6.1.2: Systems to combat soil degradation are in place and effective;

3) EX-6.2.1: The system for managing identified environmental emergencies is implemented and tested periodically,

4) EX-6.2.2: All used oil is treated.

To achieve immediate results (outputs), several activities have been identified, the implementation of which will ultimately enable better management of soil and subsoil pollution (Table 13).

Table 13. EMP: Combating soil pollution.

Health andSafety ManagementforStakeholders

Table 14 summarizes the relationships between the EMP, the SDGs, and the aspirations, goals, and priority areas of the African Union’s Agenda 2063. For GMP 7, these are SDGs 3 and 8; aspiration 1, goals 1 and 3, and the priority areas associated with the goals of the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

Table 14. Relationship between EMP 7 and the SDGs and the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

This EMP, related to the management of the health and safety of stakeholders, has the overall objective of ensuring the health and safety of stakeholders. To achieve this objective, three main effects have been identified:

1) EF-7.1: The occupational health and safety of employees is considered;

2) EF-7.2: Preventive measures relating to hazards and risks are implemented;

3) EF-7.3: Safety culture is integrated into all activities.

To make the desired changes (effect), 12 outputs are required:

1) EX-7.1.1: Health monitoring programs are put in place;

2) EX-7.1.2: Health personnel are well trained;

3) EX-7.1.3: Health-related performance is monitored and communicated;

4) EX-7.1.4: Health and safety management systems in accordance with ISO 45001 and NFC 18510 are implemented and certified;

5) EX-7.2.1: Policies to combat drugs, alcohol, and tobacco are in place;

6) EX-7.2.2: Occupational risk mapping is carried out, and actions are implemented;

6) EX-7.2.3: Awareness, training, and communication programs on hazards and risks are developed and implemented;

7) EX-7.3.1: Road safety prevention policies are communicated and implemented;

8) EX-7.3.2: The internal operating plan (IOP) covering emergency prevention is implemented and tested;

9) EX-7.3.3: Chemical and hazardous materials management programs are developed and monitored;

10) EE-7.3.4: Safety audit programs are developed and implemented;

11) EX-7.3.5: Safety-related performance is monitored and analyzed.

To achieve immediate results (outputs), several activities have been identified, the implementation of which will ultimately enable better management of the health and safety of stakeholders (Table 15).

Table 15. EMP: Health and safety management for stakeholders.

Adaptation toClimate Change

Table 16 summarizes the relationships between the EMP, the SDGs, and the aspirations, goals, and priority areas of the African Union’s Agenda 2063. For EMP 8, this is SDG 13; aspiration 1, goal 7, and the priority area associated with goal 7 of the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

Table 16. Relationship between EMP 8, the SDGs, and the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

This EMP, linked to climate change adaptation, has the overall objective of ensuring that emergency measures to combat climate change and its repercussions are controlled. To achieve this objective, two effects have been identified:

1) EF-8.1: Preparedness and response to climate emergencies are tested;

2) EF-8.2: The carbon footprint and CO2emissions are reduced.

To make the desired changes (effect), three outputs are required:

1) EX-8.1.1: Climate mitigation measures are identified;

2) EX-8.1.2: IEC measures on climate change are identified and implemented;

3) EX-8.1.3: Scenarios for climate-related emergencies are identified and tested periodically;

4) EX-8.2.1: Carbon offset programs and monitoring mechanisms are deployed and evaluated.

To achieve immediate results (outputs), several activities have been identified, the implementation of which will ultimately enable better management of climate change adaptation (Table 17).

Table 17. EMP: Adaptation to climate change.

MonitoringEnvironmental Performance

This EMP, relating to environmental performance monitoring, is not associated with the SDGs and Agenda 2063 as its specific purpose is to monitor the achievement of the objectives of the various EMPs.

Its overall objective is to improve environmental performance. To achieve this objective, two effects have been identified:

1) EF-9.1: Environmental regulatory compliance is ensured;

2) EF-9.2: The effectiveness of established actions and programs is measured.

To make the desired changes (effects), five outputs are required:

1) EX-9.1.1: Regulatory compliance monitoring and assessment are carried out;

2) EX-9.1.2: The environmental compliance program is implemented;

3) EX-9.2.1: Performance indicators (IOV) are identified and calculated, monitored, and communicated;

4) EX-9.2.2: The environmental management system according to ISO 14001 is implemented (AFNOR, Environmental management systems. Requirements and guidelines for use NF EN ISO 14001, 2015);

5) EX-9.2.3: Environmental audits are planned and implemented.

To achieve immediate results (outputs), several activities have been identified, the implementation of which will ultimately enable better management and monitoring of environmental performance (Table 18).

Table 18. EMP: Monitoring environmental performance.

The results of this study should be interpreted as a proposed management framework, rather than as evidence of outcomes already achieved. The analysis of the Manantali operational assessment identified 16 significant environmental aspects, and this study translates the associated management needs into nine proposed management practices, structured in accordance with the GAR. Consequently, statements regarding improvements in organisational capacity, environmental performance, social conditions, adaptability or learning should be formulated in forward-looking terms: these are expected outcomes of future implementation and monitoring, rather than outcomes demonstrated by this study.

The proposed performance targets of 80%, 90%, and 100% are useful as management objectives, but they cannot be interpreted as measurable performance outcomes in the absence of baseline values, denominators, methods and assessment periods.

The implementation of various environmental management programs during the operational phase of hydroelectric facilities and structures in accordance with the RBM could enable the results to be assessed across four areas: 1) the ability to understand, which is assessed through the degree of knowledge of the organizational reality, itself a function of the understanding developed by managers, employees, and other stakeholders in the organization with regard to five organizational variables (mission, vision, performance targets, available resources, past performance); 2) the ability to deliver, which is assessed through results relating to management efforts and gains achieved in terms of the political-administrative interface, resource optimization, and the development of the offering; 3) adaptability, which is assessed through results obtained in terms of strategic implementation, restructuring, operational process reviews, project design/execution, leadership renewal, and major cultural transformations; and finally 4) learning capacity, which is assessed through the organization’s evaluation subsystem. The results obtained, as well as the gaps between the results and the targets in terms of day-to-day management of operations, quality of services provided, strategic direction, and, finally, overall improvement, should be used to facilitate both individual and organizational learning (Mazouz & Leclerc, 2008).

For EMP1 concerning the optimization of energy resources, it should be noted that a significant proportion (just under a quarter) of the world’s population does not have access to electricity, a commodity that is now considered essential for a decent standard of living. This mainly concerns poor populations who do not yet have access to it, but also populations who are too far away from the major networks (Multon et al., 2011). Hydropower is the world’s largest source of renewable electricity. It generates around 16% of the world’s electricity from more than 1200 GW of installed capacity. In Africa, hydroelectric power has long been an important part of many electricity systems. Its technical potential on the continent is enormous. It is estimated at 350 GW and could generate nearly 1200 TWh per year, or three times the current consumption level of sub-Saharan Africa. Hydropower is therefore one of the solutions that can help African countries achieve their energy transition. It enables at least two of the seventeen sustainable development goals to be achieved, notably SDG7 (Fondja Wandji & Kamdem, 2020); hence, the need to implement the proposed actions for better optimization of energy resources.

With regard to EMP 2, relating to waste management, it should be noted that the issue of waste is becoming increasingly pressing in a context characterized by rapid urban and demographic growth, while also being influenced by rapid changes in production and consumption patterns (Cirelli & Florin, 2015); however, waste production is more critical in developing countries, which do not always have the necessary means to manage it properly. At the same time, the composition of this waste has shifted from organic waste (food waste) to complex materials (end-of-life products, plastics, and packaging) that pose major risks to health and the environment (Mazama Sukamai, Bompeta Lombo, Yadoli Kosanga, & Holenu Mangenda, 2024). The urgent need for waste management must focus on the principles of the circular economy, which is based on seven pillars: recycling, extending the useful life of products, responsible consumption, the functional economy, industrial and territorial ecology, and eco-design. These pillars highlight the importance of practices such as reuse, repair, recycling, rental, collaborative consumption, the fight against food waste, organic and bulk products, and the adoption of eco-design (Bourdin & Torre, 2023).

EMP 3 concerns the management of nuisances and improvement of the living environment. Controlling the nuisances associated with operational activities can substantially improve the living environment. Indicators of quality of life have evolved along with the concept of development. From the concept of economic development with indices linked to GNP (Gross National Product) and/or GDP (Gross Domestic Product), we moved on to the concept of human development assessed by the Human Development Index (HDI), before arriving at today’s concept of sustainable development (N’dahoule, 2018). Today, this multidimensional concept is at the heart of planning and development projects and has become a collective demand for well-being supported by society and a political promise involving both the state and local authorities (Barbarino, 2005). Remaining a major challenge, quality of life refers to several concepts, including the improvement of living conditions and the environment, recognized as a determining factor in the physical and psychological well-being of city dwellers (Mebirouk, 2019).

EMP 4 relates to water management. Among the resources that contribute to the development of human activities, water has several characteristics that distinguish it from all others: it is essential to life; it is omnipresent (it makes up 65% of the human body and covers 70% of the Earth’s surface); it is available in strictly fixed quantities, dictated by the laws of conservation and the water cycle. The fact that it is essential to life on Earth makes it a resource that is coveted more than any other: its scarcity keeps entire populations trapped in poverty and fuels political conflicts that can eventually lead to armed conflict (Baechler, 2012). Added to this is climate change, which plays a decisive (and negative) role in future water availability, as the water cycle is one of the systems most sensitive to this phenomenon, with impacts on freshwater accessibility, the quality of available water, and the destructive potential of water through the increase in extreme weather events (Kundzewicz et al., 2008); hence, the importance of implementing the proposed activities.

EMP 5 concerns biodiversity management. It appears that the construction of hydroelectric dams leads to the creation of reservoirs (as in the case of Manantali) of varying sizes, causing the transformation of a lotic environment into a lentic environment, with profound changes to the ecosystem and very worrying socio-environmental repercussions (Faye, Ndao, & Sambou, 2023). In this context, aquatic populations are profoundly altered: the disappearance of rheophilic species upstream is partially offset by the development of stagnant water species; the disappearance of species that reproduce in floodplains downstream. Dams are responsible for the permanent disappearance of endemic rheophilic species that cannot adapt to the new ecological conditions they face (Lévêque, 2005). The implementation of the activities proposed for EMP 5 will make it possible to limit the irreversible consequences on biodiversity in the short and medium term.

EMP 6 relates to the fight against soil pollution. The concept of soil pollution refers to all forms of pollution affecting any type of soil (agricultural, forest, urban, etc.). Polluted soil in turn becomes a potential source of direct or indirect dissemination of pollutants into the environment, via water, dust emissions, gas emissions, or via the reconcentration and transfer of pollutants by living organisms (bacteria, fungi, plants, which are in turn eaten by animals) (Zouboulis, Loukidou, & Matis, 2004). Soil is considered polluted when it contains one or more pollutants or contaminants that are likely to cause biological, physical, and chemical alterations and pose a lasting, real, and potential risk to human health and/or the environment due to pollution of the environment resulting from current or past activity. Implementing the proposed activities will therefore make it possible to better combat soil pollution.

EMP 7 concerns the management of the health and safety of interested parties. All organizations (dam operators) are responsible for the occupational health and safety of their workers and other people who may be affected by their activities. This responsibility includes promoting and preserving their physical and mental health. To better manage health and safety, a workplace health and safety management system has been put in place to enable organizations to provide safe and healthy workplaces, prevent work-related injuries and illnesses, and continuously improve their performance (AFNOR, 2018). This management system, combined with all the proposed activities, will enable better management of the health and safety of interested parties.

EMP 8 concerns adaptation to climate change. The most commonly used definition of the adaptation of human systems to climate change is that of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), namely “a process of adjusting to current or expected climate and its consequences in order to mitigate adverse effects and exploit beneficial effects” (IPCC, 2012). The scientific recommendations of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) are clear. If we want to keep global warming below 1.5˚C to 2˚C and avoid irreversible and disastrous consequences for our societies, we must achieve climate neutrality by 2050 at the latest; hence, the importance of implementing the activities proposed under EMP 8 (CSET, 2020).

EMP 9 concerns the monitoring of environmental performance. Societal expectations for sustainable development, transparency, and accountability have evolved with legislative reinforcement and increased pressure on the environment due to pollution, inefficient use of resources, inappropriate waste management, climate change, ecosystem degradation, and biodiversity loss. This has led organizations to adopt a systematic approach to environmental management through the implementation of environmental management systems with the aim of contributing to the environmental pillar of sustainable development [8]. The implementation of an environmental management system in accordance with reference standards such as ISO 14001 makes it possible to monitor all environmental performance during the operational phase of hydroelectric facilities. This approach also facilitates the implementation of the nine environmental management programs defined in this study.

The proposed environmental management strategy can then be tested by means of a baseline study, followed by periodic monitoring. Once implementation has begun, changes in the indicators can be compared with the baseline situation and, where the system allows, with defined reference groups or control conditions. This would provide the empirical basis for determining whether EMPs are actually improving their environmental and social performance.