According to researchers like [19], [23], [26], TVET colleges confront a variety of difficulties because of ineffective leadership. This is one of the main causes for which the function of educational leadership needs to be improved and tailored toward effective management techniques at the proper time, with the proper people, and in the proper location. Lack of adequate teaching and learning resources, poor infrastructure, unmotivated employees, high staff turnover, crowded classrooms, and a lack of course options for inclusive education are some other causes of ineffective leadership ([1]).

2.1.1. Using Technology to Assist Students with Disabilities

There is a global need to incorporate technology into TVET college inclusive programs to enhance their effectiveness. It should be mentioned that in the case of vocational studies, exposure to, and experience with, cutting-edge technologies transfers readily into employable skills for graduates ([28]).

The continued reliance on technology requires that colleges are flexible in their design to include and allow for new technological devices and methodologies to deliver inclusive teaching and learning ([16]). The impact of technology suggests that TVET colleges ought to continuously initiate lecturer development programs that rigorously enable employees to become accustomed to such technologies. However, the downside to the rapidly changing technologies means that equipment, study material, and machines are rendered outdated relatively quickly ([5]).

2.1.2. Relationships amongst the College Principal and Campus Managers

In the case of TVET colleges, this would necessitate that at top management level, the principal of the college has a close working relationship with campus managers and deputy principals of the college to manage inclusive education in totality. In some TVET programs, students struggle to understand theory as well as practice ([23]). Despite efforts to reorient the TVET curriculum, this issue persists.

To close the gap between ability and disability imbalances, something should be done. This gap has been detected; thus, it merits examination. According to [31], a variety of factors affect students’ academic progress. Many students from traditional schools enrol in a variety of courses at TVET institutions with the intention of earning their qualifications and pursuing employment or business. Students from various backgrounds enrol in schools in the pursuit of a formal education. Due to the diversity of their backgrounds and personal challenges, such as disabilities, some students may struggle to cope with the curriculum. Campus managers have a crucial role to play to identify students with disabilities so that they can support them with the help of the college principal.

2.1.3. Performance of TVET College Students

According to a DHET survey from 2016 ([11], 2016), just 15% of instructors in public TVET colleges were assessed to be academically and professionally competent for the TVET industry in 2014. Some 38.2% were judged academically qualified but professionally unqualified, while 12% were found to be both academically and professionally unqualified. Of these, 34.8% were evaluated to be academically and professionally qualified, but for teaching in schools rather than TVET institutions.

Budgets for TVET colleges always devote a sizeable portion of their funds to training and development. Based on the aforementioned survey results ([11], 2016), it appears that funding for skills development and training is only just budgeted for, but that there is a lack of management of bursaries and funding for lecturers’ training ([23]), which further reflects ineffective management and a lack of effective leadership for maintaining sustainability to the level necessary for the current situations and success in the future ([33]).

2.1.4. Inclusion of Students with Special Education Needs

Regular inclusion of students with special education needs is still lacking in higher education institutions, which is a deficit that has been noted. According to [1], TVET colleges continue to encounter difficult obstacles. These include issues with the funding of TVET colleges, accessibility to community members, and a lack of industry and commerciality. Lack of student assistance, lack of housing for students, a confusing mix of program quality, and inadequate and incompetent management and governance are all issues of concern ([10], 2013).

The College Council, the College Principal, the College Student Representative Council (SRC), and other college structures like the Academic Board (Continuing Education) all play major roles in the college’s governance, management, and leadership. The FET Colleges Act of 2006 outlines some of the particularly significant responsibilities of some of these leadership and governance organisations, including strategic planning, budgetary planning, and curriculum implementation. Without understanding the college management, organisational culture, and climate, it may be assumed that a failing educational institution has issues with its leadership and governance structures at the strategic and operational levels ([29]). The implementation of IE in TVET colleges is invariably impacted by management, leadership, and governance failures.

The paradigm from which this study was viewed was interpretivism. The interpretivism paradigm seeks to comprehend the world in which participants “work and live, utilising subjective interpretations” ([24]).

In this study, interpretivism enabled the researcher to understand how Inclusive Education is implemented in the selected TVET colleges campuses of the Northwest province in South Africa. Through virtual interviews, the researcher was able to hear the voices of participants on how IE is implemented in the selected TVET colleges.

A qualitative research approach was used in this study. A qualitative research approach is best described as “a planned move from philosophical worldviews to the specific selection of participants, data collection, and data analysis methods” ([24]). A qualitative approach enabled the researchers to conduct research in a natural setting and to become personally involved in a study, especially during data collection. Therefore, the researchers were able to conduct research in a naturalistic environment, wherein the emphasis was on how IE is implemented in the selected TVET colleges.

The researchers adopted a case study research design to accomplish the objectives of the study. According to [6], case study research requires in-depth investigation conducted into an individual, group, or an event to gain an understanding of a real-life phenomenon. A case study design is appropriate for this study because the researchers were able to explore, analyse, and describe the subjective but accurate experiences, perceptions, and feelings of TVET college campuses leadership in their natural settings on the implementation of Inclusive Education ([18]). Each of the three campuses is considered a case in the study. The actual verbatim accounts of the participants on the implementation of inclusive Education are reflected in the data analysis section. Adopting a case study as the design for this study enabled an understanding of how IE is implemented in TVET colleges.

Sampling refers to the “selection of a portion of the greater population that has a direct interest in the research or study” ([20]). The most important aspect to consider during sampling is how big or small the sample is. Sample size can be regarded because of the “planned study’s theoretical and practical considerations” ([7]). Some of the considerations for sample size include the financial, time, and accuracy implications ([21]).

To select participants for this study, purposive sampling was used. The twelve selected participants from the three TVET college campuses included three student support managers, three campus managers, three heads of departments (HODs), and three students. The selection of the three student support managers was because they are part of the management and can share relevant information regarding the implementation if Inclusive Education at colleges. The campus managers were selected because they also form part of management and have relevant information regarding the implementation of Inclusive Education. The Heads of Departments are also part of management and have relevant information regarding the implementation of Inclusive Education, that is why they were selected as participants in the study. The SRC was selected because they are the key stakeholders, and the implementation process affects them directly. One SRC participant lives with a disability and shared relevant information. The three TVET college campuses were selected due to them being in the Bojanala Platinum District Municipality which is convenient for the researchers to access and get relevant information (Table 1).

Table 1. Biographical details of the participants.

Individual, semi-structured interviews were used to collect data for this study. The interviews occurred on days chosen by the researcher in accordance with the research timeline, one-on-one interviews with each of the 12 participants were conducted. Each interview lasted for not more than 40 minutes and was conducted at a time convenient for the interviewees. The semi-structured interviews were conducted virtually because it was convenient for the participants.

Thematic data analysis was used to analyse the data gathered for this project. [4] define thematic analysis as an analysis where the data set is analysed and interpreted in such a way as to identify the possible recurrence of information and themes amongst different participants. Data analysis in this study followed [4] six-phase framework which involves: 1. Familiarisation with data, 2. Generaring initial codes, 3. Searching for themes, 4. Reviewing themes, 5. Defining and naming themes, and 6. Writing the report. Thematic analysis enabled the researchers to identify common themes and generated codes on the implementation of IE at selected TVET colleges.

The participants brought up several concerns as challenges in the implementation of IE in TVET colleges, such as financial challenges and insufficient resources. The participants ascribe these challenges to inadequate funding from the DHET. The research questions led to the emergence of themes and sub-themes from the data. The first theme that emerged is management challenges for IE in TVET colleges. This theme is in line with the first research question.

In analysing this theme and the sub-theme, the verbatim quotations from the participants are presented. This theme is in line with what was highlighted in the literature review. Each theme and its sub-themes are systematically presented below.

Sub-Theme 1: Financial Challenges

Financial challenges were mentioned as a serious challenge in the implementation of IE in TVET colleges. The procurement of IE resources, budgeting, and insufficient funds were the major concerns. These financial challenges ranged from the management down to the student leadership positions. If funds are set aside for the implementation of IE, the transition will be viewed more positively. It has been mentioned by the participants that managers end up using their own money to support the management of IE Participant CMC 1 said:

“I think…it is the financial resources and the red tape.At times you would end up taking money from your own pocket… It took a long time to maintain ramps needed for wheelchair access”

This concern was echoed by STC4, who stressed that inadequate funding undermines efforts to ensure equitable access:

“One major challenge is the limited budget of IE resources, which hampers our ability to provide comprehensive support and access to all students”.

Similarly, CMB1 highlighted that while campus management is tasked with creating inclusive environments, funding constraints remain a recurring obstacle:

“Managing the campus entails supervising resources and buildings to accommodate all students with learning barriers; however, we experience budget constraints that prevent us from being fully inclusive”.

Student STC4 made mention that limited budget continues to be a challenge to procure resources needed for IE:

“One major challenge is the limited budget of IE resources, which hampers our ability to provide comprehensive support and access to all students… Procurement of resources for inclusive education takes long and is not prioritised”.

Similarly, participant CMB1 stressed that funding shortages restrict the ability to upgrade essential facilities:

“The biggest need is to have enough funds available. For example, bathroom facilities need to be upgraded, and other students sometimes misuse, or damage facilities meant for learners with disabilities”.

Sharing the same sentiment, SSA1 stated that:

“Operating within student support section, we always experience shortages regarding facilities that should be available to make students life bearable. The challenge always has to do with funding.”

Furthermore, STA4 emphasised that:

“It is a pity that despite our long-standing requests for infrastructure and the necessary equipment for better implementation of Inclusive Education, the constant response is a standard lack of funds response. Instead of progress, we always take a step or two backward.”

The participants above acknowledged that colleges operate with restricted and limited funds as they are not treated as autonomous as universities. The participants’ responses illustrated the need for an inclusive environment that is accessible to all students, thus avoiding embarrassment and inaccessibility if implementation plans for IE will bring fruition. Although, principals are supposed to envision the future needs of the college, and to take initiatives of prioritising IE as part of the set of strategic objectives, insufficient funds remain a challenge. Management needs to be alert to this reality because no general way of managing is applicable to all situations. According to [35], “situational management requires that the manager analyse different situations and to formulate and apply a management strategy which will work best for the situation”. This is because each situation requires a different management approach. [12] assert that the management and implementation of inclusive education is at an apparent standstill because of ambiguity about the means through which inclusive education can be achieved.

Sufficient funding and support from DHET are essential for inclusion and yet it is rare. TVET colleges lack acceptable facilities, lecturer empowerment through training, appropriate resources, and specialised learning materials and equipment to support students with disabilities in colleges. The participants mentioned that there was red tape when it came to financial support, little knowledge regarding IE in the TVET colleges, slow progress in implementing IE, unfair treatment, and no profiling of disabled students and policies. These problems were experienced despite the White Paper on the PSET system which clarifies how support should be provided to students with disabilities.

Sub-Theme 1: Lack of Support from Management and DHET in Implementing IE

As indicated above, sufficient funding and support from DHET is essential yet rare. [36] state that poor funding is an important cause of delay in the non-implementation of policies. This sub-theme relates to lack of support from both TVET management and DHET. In response to the question posed about support given to students with disabilities, HOB3 explained:

“To be honest, with the little knowledge I have pertaining to inclusive education, I do not think we are doing enough in… Yes, there is progress, but it is very slow.”

Inadequate support for lecturers by HODs affects the provision of effective IE to students with disabilities because management support is needed for this important program. [25] concur that there are “systemic issues preventing students with disabilities from entering higher education”, and inadequate managerial support compounds these barriers.

In the same vein, HOA3 acknowledged weaknesses in identifying and profiling students:

“We do not profile our students, so how do you give support when you do not even know the kind of students we have? The system itself is also giving a problem as we are not interlinked with student support”.

This finding is reinforced by [17] who stresses that implementing inclusive education requires adaptive systems capable of addressing the diverse needs of students with disabilities.

Campus leaders further emphasised that support measures remain limited. CMA1 illustrated this point:

“Yes, we do have students with disabilities… The support we offer is applying for concessions so that they can get extra time for typing during examinations”.

While concessions are a form of support, they are insufficient to guarantee holistic inclusion. [27] highlights the importance of training all staff, from senior management to lecturers, to ensure the effective implementation of Education White Paper 6. The policy explicitly mandates institutions to foster supportive centres of learning that empower all learners to achieve their potential.

Some participants expanded on different aspects of support. CMB1 drew attention to mental wellness:

“Supporting mental wellness of staff and students is one of the most critical issues that I personally feel needs attention at my campus”.

Similarly, SSC2 noted progress but expressed dissatisfaction with student outcomes:

“There is one student who has a writing problem. We have managed to get a tape recorder so that she can answer, and someone writes for her… I am not satisfied as very few graduated, in fact they end up dropping out”.

SSB2 provided a more critical view, emphasising the lack of inclusive infrastructure:

“The college is not doing the best to support them… There are students who are using wheelchairs and there are no ramps. Their movements are limited and sometimes the weather is not favouring them”.

Another Student Support Manager (SSB2) pointed to procurement delays and inefficiencies in public services:

“It is not doing enough… Procurement challenges delay us in buying assistive devices, and public hospitals are unable to assist due to inefficiency and red tape”.

Sub Theme 1: The Use of Technology

The participants noted that online applications and registrations present challenges for students with disabilities, particularly those without access to devices or reliable Internet. This digital divide exacerbates existing inequalities and hinders inclusive education. CMC1 explained how his campus manages registrations:

“We do online registration but because of the nature of where my institution is stationed, you have a problem of not getting enough students. So, others come physically and then we use our own labs to accommodate them and do online… Only during registration are students expected to disclose their learning barriers and impairments”.

Another student participant stressed the need for early awareness during the application process:

“…to be more vocal about it. To make students aware at the application point. That is when they should know the institution can accommodate all students with learning barriers”.

SSA2 added that although disability issues are raised in reports, they often remain unaddressed:

“Even now I am compiling a report to the academic board, so disability is part of my recommendations… Every time I tell them about the challenges around IE, those recommendations are never attended to”.

Similarly, HOB3 confirmed that while inclusive education is discussed, concrete action is lacking:

“Yes, we do talk about it, issues like ramps. The department has a draft and guidelines to accommodate students with learning barriers… It is more frustrating because we find ourselves powerless”.

These responses show that although technological solutions like online registration exist, they often neglect the needs of students with disabilities. The literature confirms that digital transformation without adequate planning, resources, and training can reinforce exclusion rather than inclusion ([25]). The inclusive use of technology requires deliberate strategies, including awareness campaigns, capacity building, and policy enforcement, to ensure that students with learning barriers are not disadvantaged.