The discovery of ʻOumuamua revealed a new dynamical class of SBs: objects that exhibit NGA without visible cometary activity. Unlike classical comets, ʻOumuamua showed no detectable coma or dust tail, yet its trajectory deviated measurably from a purely gravitational orbit.

In cometary physics, dust particles are micron- to sub-millimeter-sized solid grains released from the nucleus during volatile sublimation. These grains scatter sunlight and are responsible for the visible coma and dust tail observed in active comets. In contrast, gas species (e.g., H₂O, CO, H₂) are dynamically dominant and can produce NGA through anisotropic outgassing. The absence of a detectable dust component, as observed in ʻOumuamua, therefore implies either extremely low dust production or preferential release of gas without entrained solids, consistent with the emerging class of “Dark Comets.”

Non-Gravitational Acceleration without a Tail

The motion of ʻOumuamua was tracked with high precision using facilities including the Hubble Space Telescope. These observations established that:

Direction: The excess acceleration was consistently radially outward from the Sun.Magnitude: By early 2018, the object was displaced by ~40,000 km from its predicted gravitational trajectory.

This behavior implies the presence of a continuous, low-level thrust, analogous to cometary outgassing, but without visible ejecta.

Physical Interpretations

Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain this “invisible” acceleration:

The emerging consensus favors hydrogen outgassing, consistent with an icy body whose surface layers were chemically altered by long-term cosmic-ray exposure in interstellar space.

Dark Comets in the Solar System

Since the discovery of ʻOumuamua, astronomers have identified a population of “dark comets”—SBs that exhibit measurable NGA but lack visible comae or dust tails. A notable example is 1998 KY₂₆. It is a nearly spherical asteroid, approximately 11 meters in diameter, and is a fast rotator, having a rotational period of only 5.35 minutes. It was first observed on 2 June 1998. In 2023, 1998 KY₂₆ was identified as a possible dark comet.

Dark comets are asteroids that exhibit comet-like acceleration, but visually appear as asteroids, with no coma or tail. Astronomers who study them believe the acceleration is caused by outgassing on the sunlit side. These SBs suggest that:

Low-level volatile release can occur without dust entrainmentOutgassing may be spectrally or photometrically undetectableNon-gravitational forces may be more common than previously recognized

Thus, ʻOumuamua may represent an extreme case within a broader, previously unrecognized population.

Contrast with Classical Cometary Behavior

The comet C/2019 Q4 (Borisov) provides a key comparison. Unlike ʻOumuamua, Borisov displayed classical cometary activity, including a prominent coma and dust tail driven by sublimation of volatiles such as H₂O and CO. Its NGA is well explained by the rocket effect, in which anisotropic outgassing produces a recoil force on the nucleus. Observations further indicate a high abundance of carbon monoxide, allowing activity to persist at large heliocentric distances.

The albedo in visible light ranges from about 0.9 to 0.95 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. A key physical property linking these SBs is their extremely low albedo. Typical values for dark bodies are 0.02 - 0.08, significantly lower than those of the Moon (~0.12) or Earth (~0.30). So, these asteroids are darker than charcoal!

Main types of dark asteroids:

C-type (carbonaceous): Most common (~75% of known asteroids). Rich in carbon and hydrated minerals. Very primitive (early SS material). Examples: 253 Mathilde, albedo ~0.044.D-type: Even darker and more organic-rich. Found in outer SS regions. Examples: 624 Hektor, albedo 0.025; 911 Agamemnon, albedo 0.037.P-type: low-reflectivity mixtures of carbon, silicates, and organics.

Their darkness is attributed to carbon-rich composition, complex organic residues, and long-term radiation processing.

Connection toInterstellar Objects

1I/ʻOumuamua (albedo 0.04 - 0.08).2I/Borisov (albedo 0.03 - 0.04).3I/ATLAS (albedo 0.02 - 0.06).

These objects are almost certainly very dark, but their exact albedo remains unconstrained. Such a low albedo implies either primitive composition (a carbon-rich, organic-coated surface) or surface processing (cosmic rays, UV, gamma radiation) over long timescales.

Observational Bias

Low-albedo bodies are difficult to detect due to their weak reflectivity and are often identified through infrared observations or deep sky surveys such as PanSTARRS. This introduces a strong observational bias, implying that many such SBs likely remain undetected.

Synthesis

The combined evidence supports a unified interpretation in which:

Dark comets represent a transitional population between asteroids and cometsLow albedo reflects primitive composition and/or radiation processingNGA arises from dust-poor or dust-free outgassing

Within this framework, SBs such as ʻOumuamua, C/2019 Q4 (Borisov), and C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) can be understood as members of a continuous population shaped by common physical processes.

There is no detailed, high-resolution photograph of ‘Oumuamua. Because the ‘Oumuamua was so small and moving so fast, it appeared only as a single, faint point of light, even to our most powerful telescopes. The iconic “cigar-shaped” or “pancake-shaped” images seen in the media are artist’s impressions based on mathematical models of how the object’s brightness changed as it tumbled.

‘Oumuamua was discovered about 40 days after it passed closest to the Sun. Major telescopes like Hubble could not be pointed at it until ‘Oumuamua was already hundreds of millions of kilometers away and fading.

Because ‘Oumuamua moved faster than gravity alone could explain, scientists have proposed several theories for this NGA. Since no visible comet tail was detected, the cause remains a subject of intense debate. There were proposed different mechanisms for NGA:

1) Hydrogen Outgassing (Leading Natural Theory)

2) Nitrogen Iceberg

3) Solar Radiation Pressure.

This theory suggests the acceleration was caused simply by the physical “push” of sunlight (photons) hitting the object’s surface. The Requirement: For light alone to push ‘Oumuamua this much, the object would have to be extremely thin—less than a millimeter thick—acting like a massive sail.

Implication:This led to the controversial suggestion that ‘Oumuamua could be of artificial origin, such as a piece of advanced space debris or a probe. This suggestion was proposed based on eccentricity e = 1.2 of its outbound trajectory after full NGA during inbound trajectory. The first quantified value of ‘Oumuamua NGA was obtained by Micheli et al. [3]:

that exceeds the NGA values for the classical comets by more than fifty times (see Section 4.6), despite the absence of a detectable dust coma, demonstrating that significant recoil forces can arise from dust-poor or dust-free outgassing.

Unlike ‘Oumuamua, where the acceleration was a mystery due to a lack of visible activity, C/2019 Q4 (Borisov) behaved like a “textbook” comet. Its NGA was clearly linked to the visible outgassing of gas and dust as it approached the Sun.

As Borisov got closer to the Sun, its ices (specifically water and carbon monoxide) sublimated directly into gas. This gas, along with dust particles, was ejected from the nucleus in “jets”. These jets created a recoil force that pushed the comet slightly off its purely gravitational path.

Observations showed that Borisov was exceptionally rich in carbon monoxide (CO), which sublimates at much lower temperatures than water ice. This allowed it to remain active and continue accelerating even at great distances from the Sun.

Borisov was so “normal” that it helped astronomers understand what a typical interstellar comet looks like. Its acceleration allowed researchers to estimate its mass and density more accurately than they could for ‘Oumuamua. The mechanism of its NGA a NG ~ 10 − 6   m ⋅ s − 2 (this value is much larger than the values for outgassing mechanism, see Section 4.6) remains open.

Recent high-precision orbit determinations of C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) provide strong evidence for significant NGA well above the levels typically observed in long-period comets. Eubanks et al. incorporated six additional observations obtained from two interplanetary spacecraft into the orbital solution. These measurements, acquired from vantage points and epochs inaccessible to ground-based observatories, reduced the formal uncertainties in the derived NGA parameters by approximately 20% - 40% compared to solutions based solely on ground-based data collected between May and December 2025 [4].

Using this expanded dataset, they determined an NGA vector (scaled to 1 AU) of:

which corresponds to:

Independent analyses by several authors yield comparable or even larger values, as summarized in Table 2.

According to Jet Propulsion Laboratory: Small-Body Database Lookup, the latest values of NGA for so named “interstellar comets” are presented in Table 3.

Table 2. Reported non-gravitational accelerations of C/2025 N1 (ATLAS).

Table 3. Latest non-gravitational accelerations of “interstellar objects”.

A key result emerging from these studies is that the characteristic magnitude of NGA satisfies:

This value is one to four orders of magnitude larger than the typical range observed in comets (Section 4.6).

Implications

Such an unusually large acceleration cannot be readily explained by standard mechanisms:

Outgassing: would require unrealistically high mass-loss rates or extreme anisotropyRadiation pressure: insufficient for an object of typical cometary size and massThermal effects (Yarkovsky/YORP): too weak by several orders of magnitude

Therefore, C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) occupies a distinct dynamical regime, in which the conventional framework of cometary physics appears insufficient.

This discrepancy strongly suggests the presence of an additional or alternative acceleration mechanism. Within the present framework, such behavior is naturally interpreted as the result of an internal energy conversion, in which the rotational energy of a nucleus is partially transformed into translational kinetic energy of SB3.

NGAs are measurable deviations from purely gravitational motion, arising from internal or surface processes, as well as interactions with radiation and plasma. Although typically small in magnitude, NGAs play a crucial role in the orbital evolution of small bodies, particularly those on near-parabolic trajectories.

PrincipalSourcesof NGA

1) Outgassing(dominant for comets).Asymmetric sublimation of volatile ices produces reactive forces that alter the trajectory.

Typical magnitude near 1 AU:

Effects:shifts in perihelion timing (hours to days)changes in eccentricity at the 10⁻⁷ - 10⁻⁶ levelmodification of inferred original orbits

2) Yarkovsky effect(thermal recoil). Anisotropic thermal emission from a rotating body produces a small thrust.

Typical magnitude:

Important for:long-term orbital driftnear-Earth asteroid trajectory prediction

3) YORP effect(rotational dynamics). Radiation and thermal emission exert torques that modify spin rate and axis orientation.

Consequences:spin-up or spin-downchanges in obliquitypossible structural disruption or fissionindirect influence on orbital evolution via altered outgassing geometry

4) Radiation pressure.Momentum transfer from solar photons affects small or low-mass objects.

Particularly relevant for:very small bodieslow-density or high area-to-mass ratio objects

Summary

NGA in SS bodies arise primarily from outgassing, radiation pressure, and thermal effects. Their typical magnitudes (10⁻¹⁰ - 10⁻⁷ m s⁻²) are small but dynamically significant, especially for long-period comets near the parabolic limit, where even minute perturbations can produce large changes in inferred orbital parameters.

However, these known mechanisms are insufficient to explain strongly hyperbolic trajectories such as that reported for C/2025 N1 (ATLAS). This discrepancy motivates the exploration of alternative acceleration mechanisms.

Comets and asteroids are widely understood as remnants of the early SS, formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from the protoplanetary disk surrounding the young Sun. Their formation reflects the thermal gradient within this disk:

Inner SS (high temperature): Formation of rocky and metallic bodies → asteroids.Outer SS (low temperature): Condensation of volatile ices mixed with dust → comets.

Asteroids primarily formed in the region now occupied by the asteroid belt, where gravitational perturbations from Jupiter inhibited accretion into a full-sized planet. Comets formed beyond the “snow line,” where volatile compounds such as water, CO₂, methane, and ammonia could condense.

Subsequent gravitational interactions with the giant planets redistributed these bodies:

Kuiper Belt: reservoir of short-period cometsOort Cloud: source of long-period comets

This standard model implies a common origin in the protoplanetary disk, with present-day differences arising from thermal history and dynamical evolution. At the same time, growing observational evidence supports a continuum between asteroids and comets, blurring traditional classification boundaries.

Key question.What is the ultimate origin of the material—dust, metals, ices, and complex molecules—that formed these primordial bodies? This question remains open and is central to alternative cosmological frameworks such as WUC.

Gravity is described by a scale-dependent gravitational parameter:

where: G 0 = a 2 c 4 8 π h c is an extrapolated value of G at Q = 1 , h is the Planck constant, c is a gravitodynamic constant, a is a basic length unit:

Q in the present Epoch equals Q = 0.759972 × 10 40 . The corresponding characteristic scale (radius of the World R ) is:

The total mass and average critical density of the Macro-world are:

where m 0 is a basic mass unit: m 0 = h / a c and ρ 0 is a basic density unit:

WUC introduces three additional interactions beyond gravity: Weak, Super-Weak, and Extremely-Weak, characterized by the following parameters respectively:

Each interaction defines the integrity and scale of the corresponding world (Table 4).

Table 4. Parameters of the Multiworld.

The Large-world is governed by the extremely-weak interaction, approximately 10 orders of magnitude stronger than gravity. Its characteristic range is:

This scale defines the boundary of Extra-Solar Systems (ESS), interpreted as spherical structures separating Solar-type systems from the Interstellar Medium.

The maximum total mass of such a system is:

with a corresponding maximum stellar mass:

The average density:

exceeds the critical density by ten orders of magnitude.

The Small-world is governed by the super-weak interaction, approximately 20 orders of magnitude stronger than gravity. Its characteristic range is:

The maximum mass and density are:

Within this framework:

Ball Lightning → Small Body SB1[1]Tunguska Superbolide → Small Body SB2 [2]C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) → Small Body SB3

Thus, C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) is interpreted as a higher-order Small Body SB3, whose anomalous dynamics arise from internal processes associated with UCM Nucleus.

Notably, the concept of superweak interactions was also explored by Wolfenstein [13], providing partial conceptual precedent.

The Micro-world is governed by an interaction approximately 30 orders of magnitude stronger than gravity, with range:

This scale is many orders of magnitude larger than the conventional weak nuclear force range, implying a fundamentally different interaction regime.

The maximum mass is:

and the density:

Micro-world objects, with masses about the Planck mass M Pl (including dust particles), are proposed as fundamental building blocks of all macroscopic structures.

All four regimes—Macro, Large, Small, and Micro—are interpreted as Cosmic Bubbles with boundaries characterized by a universal surface energy density:

The total energy E CB of a Cosmic Bubble of radius R CB is [14]:

This relation provides a unifying description of structure formation across all scales, linking geometry, energy, and interaction strength.

The Hill sphere defines the region within which the gravitational influence of a system dominates over external tidal forces. For SS embedded in the Milky Way, the Hill radius R H can be approximated as

where:

R GC ≈ 26.7   kly is the Galactocentric distance of the Sun M SS ≈ 2 × 10 30   kg is the SS mass M MW ≈ 1.15 × 10 12 M ⊙ is the enclosed Galactic mass

This yields

The characteristic Large-world scale is

The close agreement between R H and R EW suggests that:

the outer boundary of the Oort Cloud lies near ~10⁵ AUstable cometary aphelia significantly beyond this scale are dynamically disfavored

The corresponding maximum orbital period is

consistent with longest reliably determined periods of long-period comets (Table 1).

The extremely large aphelion (~380,000 AU) and orbital period (~83 Myr) sometimes reported for C/2023 A3 (Tsuchinshan-ATLAS) are likely influenced by:

observational uncertaintiesnon-gravitational perturbations

For comparison, the distance to Proxima Centauri (≈ 4.24 ly) highlights that such orbital solutions approach interstellar scales.

In standard astrophysics, the SS boundary is often associated with the Heliopause (~120 AU). In contrast, within the present framework the effective boundary is set by the Large-world scale (~10⁵ AU), consistent with the observed cutoff in comet aphelia.

No Solar System comet has a securely determined original barycentric aphelion exceeding ~10⁵ AU; larger formal values arise naturally from uncertainties in near-parabolic orbit solutions.

To examine the dynamical impact of sustained NGA, consider radial motion under solar gravity plus a constant outward acceleration a NG :

with initial condition

Integration yields

For r ≪ r 0 , this simplifies to

Taking the perihelion distance

the gravitational contribution alone yields

The observed maximum velocity is

Thus, the excess component satisfies

Assuming the NGA acts over a characteristic distance comparable to the Large-world scale,

we obtain

This represents a lower bound, corresponding to acceleration acting over the maximum distance r 0 . Even in this limiting case, the required acceleration lies at the upper end of—or exceeds—the typical range for cometary non-gravitational effects (10⁻¹⁰ − 10⁻⁷ m∙s⁻²).

However, directly inferred values for C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) (Section 4.5) are of order

significantly exceeding expectations from standard outgassing models. We emphasize that the derived NGA is independent of the assumed initial velocity v 0 . Consequently, an “interstellar body,” regardless of the value of v 0 , cannot account for the directly inferred magnitude of a NG .

This analysis shows that:

sustained NGA can significantly modify cometary velocitiesthe magnitude required for C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) exceeds that attainable by conventional mechanismsa fundamentally different physical process must therefore be considered

Within the present framework, this is naturally interpreted as internal energy conversion, whereby rotational energy of the nucleus is transformed into translational kinetic energy of SB3.

Moreover, weaker analogues of this process may contribute to the dynamics of other long-period comets, suggesting a broader role for NGA than traditionally assumed.

Within the present framework, all gravitationally rounded bodies—from planets to galaxy clusters—are proposed to contain cores composed of Universe-Created Matter (UCM). These cores consist of UCPs undergoing continuous self-annihilation, forming Self-Annihilating Reactors (SARs) that function as persistent internal energy sources.

A representative lower bound for gravitationally rounded in SS is Saturn’s moon Mimas, with:

Mean radius: 198.2 km ± 0.4 kmMass: 3.75 × 10¹⁹ kgMean density: ∼1.15 × 10³ kg∙m⁻³Surface temperature: ~ 64 K

The observed temperature exceeds that expected from solar heating alone. Within the present framework, this discrepancy is attributed to internal energy generation within the UCM core. Even at relatively low densities (~10³ kg∙m⁻³), self-annihilation processes may remain effective.

Extending this concept, SARs are proposed to operate in all planetary bodies, including Earth, providing energy for:

volcanismseismic activitylong-term geological evolution

The Tunguska event is commonly interpreted as the atmospheric disruption of a ~50 - 60 m body, releasing ~3 - 30 Mt TNT equivalent at an altitude of ~5 - 10 km without forming an impact crater. Such events belong to the class of airbursts (fireballs or bolides), with the most energetic classified as superbolides.

Meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere at velocities ≥ 11 km/s, compressing the air ahead of them and generating extreme temperatures through adiabatic heating (ram pressure). This process leads to ablation, fragmentation, or explosive disruption.

WUC Interpretation

The Tunguska object (SB2) is interpreted as follows:

It possessed a low-density UCM core (<10³ kg∙m⁻³).Under normal conditions, self-annihilation was inefficient, allowing stability in space.Atmospheric entry increased core density via ram pressure.A critical threshold triggered rapid self-annihilation, producing explosive energy release.

The estimated maximum energy

implies a core volume

corresponding to a characteristic diameter

Thus, SB2 bodies are interpreted as metastable UCM structures capable of rapid energy release under external perturbations.

In the present framework, Ecliptic Small Bodies (SBs) were produced by the Sun as the result of Volcanic Rotational Fission (VRF) of the Sun’s UCM Core 4.57 Byr ago [1].

Nearly isotropic SBs were produced by Giant Planets with different directions of their rotational axes (which are, in fact, “Failed stars”) as the result of VRF of their UCM cores 4.57 Byr ago.

UCM cores of satellite objects can be any size from micrometers to thousands of km. Satellites are rocky or icy bodies as the result of the self-annihilation of UCPs inside of their cores with a density ≳ 10³ kg∙m⁻³.

All chemical elements, compositions, and radiative outputs are generated in situ through UCP self-annihilation within UCM cores of asteroids and comets. The formation of all objects in SS has a good explanation.

In case when the density of UCM cores of satellites is <10³ kg∙m⁻³, the self-annihilation process is not efficient. Then, there is a possibility of stable UCM Bolides (SB2), which are the analog of Ball Lightnings (SB1) with much larger internal energy.

SBs are governed by the super-weak interaction. Its characteristic interaction range is:

The theoretical maximum Small-world mass is:

SBs consist of Nuclei and Inner Comae. Nuclei are Rotating Balls made of UCM with density in the range from 3.44 kg∙m⁻³ up to ~10³ kg∙m⁻³, at different rotation speeds up to the maximum speed at the nucleus equator equals the escape velocity.

The range of the weak interaction for particles UCF1 (1.3 TeV) is:

and a calculated minimum particle concentration is:

Considering the rest energy of UCF1:

we can calculate the minimum energy density of the UCM core:

that is equivalent to the mass density of 3.44 kg∙m⁻³ that is not enough for efficient self-annihilation.

Inner Comae have different diameters D IC in the range of ~10³ km up to the maximum diameter:

Micro-WorldConnection: Dust and Coma Formation

The weak-interaction scale:

matches the observed diameters of large dust grains D DG in the inner comae [15] up to the maximum diameter D max :

This suggests that:

Micro-world objects (UCM fragments) are continuously generated due to the Rotational Fission of Nuclei made of UCM.These fragments evolve into dust grains and volatiles via UCP self-annihilation.The Inner comae are thus a direct manifestation of internal UCM processes.

Micro-Volcanism (MiV) Mechanism

The activity of SBs is driven by recurrent MiVs, governed by the following cycle:

1)Energy Release Phase

The UCM core ejects material.A small fraction of mass is lost.A significant fraction of rotational angular momentum is dissipated.

2)Accumulation Phase

The core continuously absorbs UCPs from the four-dimensional Nucleus of the World created by the Eternal Universe.Mass increases as M ∝ τ (cosmological time).Angular momentum increases faster L ∝ τ 3 / 2 .

3)Instability Threshold

When the rotational velocity of the core approaches the escape velocity, a new MiV event is triggered.

4)Continuous Outflow

Dust grains and volatiles are continuously replenished.

Energy Conversion Mechanism

A key feature of the model is the conversion of rotational energy into translational kinetic energy:

MiVs generate internal torques.These torques reduce the rotational energy of nuclei while increasing their translational kinetic energy.The process is analogous to a rotating body converting spin into linear motion under frictional interaction.

This mechanism naturally explains:

The large NGA.The enhanced perihelion velocity.The stability of NGA over time.

Importantly, the Nucleus is assumed to rotate at a near-critical equatorial velocity, approximately equal to its escape velocity, maintaining a quasi-steady energy conversion regime.

Synthesis

Within the present framework:

C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) is interpreted as a Small Body (SB3).Its coma, dust production, and dynamics arise from internal UCM processes.Its anomalous trajectory is explained by continuous internal energy conversion, rather than external forces alone.

This interpretation provides a unified explanation linking:

Cometary activityNGAHyperbolic motion

Estimates of the Nucleus properties of C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) are highly model-dependent. Reported values include [16]:

Density: ρ ≈ 200   -   600   kg ⋅ m − 3 Mass: M ≈ 4.4 × 10 10   kg Diameter: D ≈ 0.520   -   0 .748   km

However, within the present framework, the only directly measured parameters are:

Rotation period: T = ( 16.16 ± 0.01 ) h Diameter (Hubble): D H = 0.32   -   5.6   km

Rotation-Constrained Density ρ

Assuming that the equatorial velocity equals the escape velocity v = v e s c , that is a condition for the production of dust grains due to the Rotational Fission of the nucleus made of Universe-Created Matter (UCM):

we obtain:

This yields a density depending only on the rotation period:

Implications

ρ ≫ 3.44   kg ⋅ m − 3 (minimum UCM core density) ρ ≪ 10 3   kg ⋅ m − 3 (efficient SAR threshold)

Thus, the nucleus is long-term stable, with low-rate self-annihilation.

Size and Mass Constraints

Maximum possible radius (using Small-world mass limit M S W = 1.19 × 10 13   kg ):

For the reported mass 4.4 × 10¹⁰ kg:

Using the observational upper bound R H ≤ 2.8   km , the corresponding mass is:

These values define a physically consistent parameter space for the Nucleus.

Rotational Energy

This rotational energy of the nucleus acts as a reservoir for conversion into translational kinetic energy of C/2025 N1 (ATLAS), contributing to the observed NGA.

C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) appears distinctly diffuse in telescope images, indicating that its nucleus is surrounded by a coma—a cloud of gas and dust produced by outgassing. Coma maps of H₂O, CO₂, and CH₄ (Figure 1) reveal structured emission

Figure 1. Coma maps of H₂O, CO₂, and CH₄, computed as the integrated emission flux across the corresponding fluorescence bands for Observations 6, 15, and 13, respectively. The sunward and target velocity directions are denoted by the white arrows. The target centroids, computed as the photocenter in the median-stacked images, are marked with the black points. For H₂O and CO₂, the white contours correspond to emission levels of 75%, 50%, and 25% relative to the maximum value and illustrate the slight anti-sunward extension of the respective comae. The precise spatial distribution of CH₄ in the near-nucleus region is poorly constrained due to the low signal-to-noise ratio of the data. Adapted from [17].

with a modest anti-sunward extension. The inner coma has a characteristic scale of several thousand kilometers that is in good agreement with the observed data [17].

Space-based imaging further confirms typical cometary morphology. Observations from ESA’s JUICE mission show a bright coma, extended tail, and fine structures including jets, filaments, and streams [18] (Figure 2). Although often described as an interstellar visitor, its observed behavior is consistent with that of an active comet.

Ultraviolet observations obtained by NASA’s Europa Clipper spacecraft (Figure 3) reveal a compact UV-bright region near the nucleus, although its precise size remains unconstrained due to instrumental limitations [19].

Figure 2. The arrows in the top left indicate the direction in which the comet was moving (blue) and the relative direction of the Sun (yellow). Adapted from [18].

Figure 3. Interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS is seen in this composite image captured on Nov. 6, 2025, by the Europa Ultraviolet Spectrograph instrument on NASA’s Europa Clipper spacecraft, from a distance of around 103 million miles (164 million kilometers). Adapted from [19].

X-ray observations by XMM-Newton and XRISM [20]-[22] (Figure 4) detect:

extended emission in the 0.3 - 1.0 keV rangespatial scales up to ~ 4 × 10⁵ kmspectral features associated with C, N, and O

Figure 4. An image of comet 3I/ATLAS from the X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission (XRISM). Image credit: JAXA.

These emissions are conventionally interpreted as solar wind charge exchange with neutral coma gas. Notably, X-ray diagnostics are particularly sensitive to hydrogen and nitrogen species that are difficult to detect at optical and infrared wavelengths.

Spectroscopic observations using JWST/NIRSpec and SPHEREx reveal an unusually high CO₂ enrichment:

significantly exceeding typical SS comet values [23]. Elevated CO abundance

and pronounced red spectral slopes further characterize the object [24].

In standard interpretations, this composition is attributed to galactic cosmic ray processing of surface layers. Laboratory studies show that irradiation can convert CO into CO₂ and produce organic-rich crusts. The observed outgassing is therefore thought to sample only a shallow processed layer (~15 - 20 m), rather than pristine interior material.

This interpretation implies that long-residence interstellar objects primarily expose radiation-processed material rather than original formation signatures.

The coma of C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) exhibits:

strong and evolving outgassing (e.g., [25]-[28])dominance of relatively large (~100 μm) dust grains [29]chemically complex molecular composition

Detected species include (e.g., [30]-[38]):

Optical: CN, NiRadio: CH₃OH, HCNInfrared: H₂O, CO₂, CO, CH₄

Post-perihelion evolution shows:

increasing CO productionemergence of organic emission bands (3.2 - 3.4 μm)asymmetry in H₂O production rates

A key observational result is the elevated CO₂/H₂O ratio, significantly above typical cometary values.

Key question: What is the origin of the complex chemistry and large dust grains? Within conventional models, these properties are attributed to primordial composition modified by irradiation. Within the present framework, they arise from ongoing internal processes associated with the nucleus.

During mid-2025, the coma exhibited a pronounced sunward-directed plume, distinct from the classical anti-solar tail [23]-[25][31][39][40]. This feature:

originates from localized activity on the illuminated hemisphereis consistent with anisotropic emission of large dust particlesresembles behavior observed in C/2014 UN271 (Bernardinelli-Bernstein) [41]

Subsequent observations revealed [42][43]:

a persistent sunward plume linked to a localized active regiona faint high-latitude jet in the inner comaperiodic modulation of jet orientation

The inferred rotation period is:

consistent with photometric estimates of rotation period: T = ( 16.16 ± 0.01 ) h [27]. This represents one of the clearest detections of rotationally modulated jet activity in a cometary coma.

Within the present framework, the same observational dataset admits a fundamentally different interpretation:

1)Internal Chemical Production

Molecular species are generated by ongoing processes associated with UCPs, rather than being solely primordial. The observed composition reflects active internal chemistry.

2)Coma as a Self-Annihilating Reactor (SAR) Output

The coma is continuously replenished by internally generated gas and dust:

no requirement for preserved “pristine” materialsustained activity independent of heliocentric distance

3)X-RayEmission Mechanism

X-ray emission may include contributions from:

gamma radiation produced by UCP self-annihilationsubsequent interaction with coma gases

4)Isotopic and Chemical Anomalies

Observed compositional anomalies are interpreted as signatures of ongoing particle processes rather than evidence of ancient interstellar origin.

Synthesis

The principal observational features of C/2025 N1 (ATLAS):

strong NGAunusual chemical compositiondominance of large dust grainspersistent activity at large heliocentric distances

are commonly interpreted as evidence for an interstellar origin and prolonged cosmic-ray processing.

Within the present framework, these same features are instead understood as intrinsic properties of SB3 characterized by:

an active UCM nucleuscontinuous matter and energy productioninternal conversion of rotational energy into translational motion

This interpretation provides a unified explanation of both the dynamical and physical properties of the object without invoking an interstellar origin.

NGA arises from internal energy conversion and is characterized by:

quasi-constant magnitudeweak dependence on heliocentric distancepersistence even at large distances where sublimation is negligible

The rotational state of the nucleus is expected to evolve through:

systematic angular momentum loss due to internal processesdiscrete, step-like changes associated with micro-volcano (MiV) eventslong-term evolution toward a critical rotation state

The coma is internally generated and its composition exhibits:

non-solar abundance ratiostemporal variability not strictly correlated with heliocentric distanceemergence of previously undetected molecular species

Dust production is linked to Micro-world processes, leading to:

characteristic grain sizes about 10² μmcontinuous replenishment independent of solar heating

The sunward-directed plume is interpreted as a consequence of ram-pressure-driven activation. As the Small Body moves through the Interplanetary Medium, compression of the upstream gas leads to adiabatic heating. This increases the effective density within the nucleus, enhancing the efficiency of the self-annihilating reactor (SAR). As a result:

internal energy release intensifiesdust production increases preferentially in the sunward directiona persistent sun-facing plume is generated

Sustained activity is expected at all heliocentric distances, including regions where solar-driven sublimation is negligible. Gas and dust production are therefore intrinsic rather than externally driven.

X-ray emission is interpreted as arising from:

interaction of internally generated gamma radiation with coma gasesrather than solely from solar wind charge exchange

The trajectory is expected to show:

systematic deviations from purely gravitational plus outgassing modelspersistent excess velocity not reproducible by standard non-gravitational laws

WUC predicts that a subset of long-period comets will exhibit:

anomalously high NGAunusual chemical compositionssimilar dynamical signatures indicative of internal energy processes

“Dark comets” and objects such as ʻOumuamua are interpreted as small bodies that:

exhibit measurable NGAlack visible comae or dust tails

Their dynamics are explained by the same internal mechanism—conversion of rotational energy of the nucleus into translational kinetic energy.

Extremely low albedo values (0.02 - 0.08) are attributed to:

low concentrations of ordinary matter in the surrounding comadominance of non-luminous Universe-Created Matter

Final Statement

Within the present framework, internal energy mechanisms are fundamental in governing the dynamical behavior of C/2025 N1 (ATLAS). These processes are not secondary corrections but primary drivers that determine the object’s origin, evolution, and observable properties. More broadly, they offer a new perspective on Small-Body physics and the processes underlying SS formation.