In the rapidly evolving global economy driven by technological advancement, companies are in a “race against the machine” as disruptive technologies make current skills obsolete ([20]). Technology companies are particularly prone to the impact of disruptive technologies, as their workforce needs to develop and enhance the technical and soft skills required to operate as these technologies evolve ([22]). Workforce development and hiring that focus on skills rather than credentials have become the most efficient and profitable talent development strategy ([49]; [16]).

The research aims to explore the impact of disruptive technologies on the upskilling and reskilling of technology companies’ workforce. The specific problem this research addresses is how disruptive technologies, particularly artificial intelligence (AI), have impacted the talent development, focusing on technology professionals’ upskilling and reskilling.

The research questions and sub-questions planned to be addressed in this research are listed as follows:

Research Question 1: What skills do technology companies need to focus on in their upskilling and reskilling efforts?

1) Which digital skills will be in high demand for technology companies soon?

2) Which of the current digital skills of the technology workforce will be highly impacted by disruptive technologies, AI in particular?

Research Question 2: What upskilling and reskilling strategies do technology companies need to implement to have future-ready professionals?

1) What strategies have been used successfully so far?

2) What challenges may companies face in their professionals’ upskilling and reskilling efforts?

3) How companies may design sustainable skill development plans considering disruptive technologies’ impact, particularly AI?

The study involved data collection and a thorough analysis of the existing employee skilling programs available in the organization, mostly in the form of reports. Although the documentation found in the organization helps explain the various skill development efforts, except for one preliminary study by college students in 2020, none of the documents were used as a reference for this research. Therefore, the main source of information was the interviews conducted. The researcher interviewed key individuals responsible for skill development, including the leadership group and a few employees, to better understand the objectives and effectiveness of current and future workforce development plans. The researcher and the case study organization’s talent development division agreed on the selection of the study’s participants. Interviews followed standard research approaches and were approved through the University Research Review and Institutional Review Board processes.

In the contemporary global setting, technological innovations exert an extraordinary influence on jobs, societal structures, and business operations. Modern businesses prioritize efficiency and are ready to embrace change, provided that return on investment and sustainability are guaranteed ([33]). From a societal and economic policy-making perspective, disruptive technologies present a complex matrix of challenges and opportunities, since job markets are not determined solely by supply and demand. For instance, in developing and emerging economies, where disparities in educational opportunities and digital fluency are enormous, disruptive technologies tend to exclude most low-income people, women, low-skilled workers, and marginalized communities ([24]; [33]). Psychological theories emphasize the role of work characteristics, such as autonomy and meaningfulness, in shaping job outcomes amid technological change ([6]; [38]). Therefore, talent development managers and policymakers should consider the impact of disruptive technologies from perspectives beyond job efficiency and economic development.

Existing conceptual frameworks of talent development usually focus on talent attraction, development, and retention strategies without considering the effects of disruptive technologies ([51]), as shown in Figure 1 below. This study proposes a unique talent development framework that accounts for the impact of emerging technologies.

Figure 1. Talent development strategy framework (adapted from [51]).

Qualitative research involves defining the study’s scope by identifying cause-and-effect relationships among various factors. This process includes deliberately recruiting participants, conducting unstructured and structured interviews with key stakeholders, and examining relevant documents ([14]). Since the study aims to identify the factors that impact the workforce development of information technology professionals as related to disruptive technologies, conducting domain-specific studies requires a thorough understanding of disruptive technologies and their opportunities and challenges for government and non-government organizations ([14]). Consequently, data for this qualitative analysis was gathered from purposefully selected professionals who comprehensively understand technological changes and have extensive workforce development experience. Therefore, this qualitative case study will be conducted more effectively when the views of professionals and people in leadership positions are appropriately engaged. Therefore, the study focuses on individuals from the leadership, talent development, human resources, and technical teams. Hence, one individual among the seven people in a leadership role, two among the three in the talent development division, one from human resources among the five people in HR leadership, and two technical managers among about ten technical managers were included in the study. During the interview process, the researcher determined that the sample size was sufficient because data saturation was reached after the fifth participant, with subsequent interviews yielding no substantially new themes or insights. This finding is consistent with comparable qualitative studies that achieved sufficient depth with a similarly small sample ([13]). Therefore, the six participants included in the present study provided adequate data to address the research questions and support the thematic analysis.The two fundamental questions to be answered in this study are: What are the current highly demanded skills of IT professionals, and what are the sustainable strategies to develop a future-ready workforce? Specifically, it is essential to have domain knowledge in information technology and awareness of the case study organization’s specific context to answer these questions effectively. Therefore, recruiting individuals with information technology knowledge and leadership positions is appropriate.

This study’s primary data collection method involved in-depth, semi-structured, and structured interview questions with selected personnel capable of providing detailed insights and perspectives on workforce development related to disruptive technologies. The researcher designed interviews with open-ended questions to enable comprehensive analysis and capture diverse viewpoints on the topics discussed ([67]). During the interviews, the researcher facilitated the discussion and asked follow-up questions as needed. All interviews were conducted formally via Zoom, and all meeting sessions were recorded and transcribed. The interviewees transparently communicated about the interview protocols, including the need for recording and transcription, and how their input would be utilized in the study. The other source of information for the case study was published and unpublished documents created by various functional groups of the City. Through discussions with the director and other potential research participants, the researcher learned that efforts were undertaken, documents were created, and proposals were presented to the City’s leadership on talent development at various times, but none of the documents were sufficiently organized to be considered as study reference. But the researcher reviewed these resources as they serve as stepping stones for the study.

As organizations increasingly adopt cloud-based systems, interviewees emphasized that cybersecurity and data privacy skills are becoming essential across both public and private sectors. The respondents noted that as technology evolves, cyber threats are also becoming more sophisticated. This trend demands the ongoing development of expertise in privacy and security. A recent study by [53] supports this view, highlighting that the expansion of digital government services is accompanied by a rise in cyber vulnerabilities. Consequently, specialized cybersecurity skills are now critical to managing these risks. Interviewees believe professionals must adapt accordingly, placing greater emphasis on safeguarding user data and maintaining organizational integrity.

Most interviewees also cite artificial intelligence (AI) as a crucial skill for modern technology roles, with particular emphasis on ethical and responsible AI use. However, the interviewees also agreed that the public sector is lagging in its adoption of AI. For instance, there is still an ongoing discussion within the case study organization about incorporating AI tools, such as Microsoft Copilot, and interviewees underscore the urgency of AI literacy while recognizing the potential ethical challenges and policy implications that AI brings. Interviewees also observed a slower pace of adoption at the case study organization, noting that AI policies are still being drafted at the leadership level, with a focus on the responsible use of the technology, and that AI skill development opportunities are gradually being made available to employees. In the private sector, interviewees believe there will be faster adoption of AI, as it enhances productivity and enables faster, more accurate work, allowing professionals to focus on creative, strategic tasks that AI cannot replicate. Research by [2] supports this notion by identifying factors influencing AI adoption in both the public and private sectors.

As reliance on digital collaboration platforms continues to grow, interviewees emphasized that foundational tools like Microsoft Office, Google Workspace, SharePoint, and Microsoft Teams remain essential across all sectors. These platforms support daily operations, enable secure document management, and facilitate effective cross-project collaboration. Some interviewees also pointed to tools such as Power BI and Power Platform as critical for data-driven decision-making, automation, and the generation of key performance indicators (KPIs). This perspective aligns with [34], who found that AI enhances psychological availability and reduces feelings of work alienation. Given the pace of technological advancement, adaptability was highlighted as a vital skill, particularly in navigating AI-related changes. To stay current, technology professionals are encouraged to engage in continuous learning through online courses, workshops, and job shadowing—an approach supported by [39] and [32], who stress the importance of upskilling and reskilling to remain relevant and efficient in the evolving tech landscape.

A summary of the skill sets that research participants listed as important digital skills of the future is shown below (Table 2). The researcher did not provide any list of skills during the interview, but the interviewees mentioned AI and Cybersecurity in particular. They also listed other skills they thought were important, which the researcher summarized as foundational, advanced, and adaptive skills, based on the categories used in [10]. Foundational skills are basic digital skills commonly used in modern workplaces, such as office applications and communication tools, whereas advanced skills include programming, development tools, and specialized software. Adaptive skills include advanced soft and personal skills that are important for value creation, such as creativity, intelligence, agility, and adaptability.

Table 2. Summary of digital skills of the future, according to research participants (RP).

The second question posed to the interviewees was how they identified critical and trending skills employees need as technology evolves. Interviewees shared their organizations’ multifaceted approaches to anticipating technological needs, bridging skill gaps, and collaborating with educational and industry partners, with a particular emphasis on the transformative potential of disruptive technologies such as AI. The details are discussed as follows.

Research participants listed various methods currently used and potentially applicable to identify the skills needed for upskilling, which are summarized in Figure 2 below. The participants used various terms to describe the various methods of identifying the skills, and the figure shows the frequency of the terms mentioned under each category.

Figure 2. Summary of skill identification mechanisms in the case study organization.

Interviewees noted the growing use of skill gap analysis to pinpoint areas of expertise gaps, particularly in high-demand fields such as AI, big data, and process automation. Identifying these gaps will help organizations collaborate with external content providers to develop specialized training programs. This approach marks a shift from generalized, mandatory training sessions to tailored learning paths, where employees can assess their proficiency levels and engage in training suited to their needs, based on skill-gap analysis. Such a skill-gap analysis-based approach aligns with the best practices discussed by [12], who advocate a personalized microlearning approach to optimize employee engagement and retention of new skills. The case study organization exemplified this through its recent partnership with the service desk, in which support tickets indicating knowledge gaps are used to connect employees with targeted training. This method ensures that training is directly relevant to employees’ roles, addressing real-time needs and improving service.

Most interviewees emphasized the value of partnering with technology vendors and consultancy firms within the case study organization. Partnerships with organizations such as Pluralsight, Gartner, and the Infotech Research Group provide timely insights into emerging industry trends. Interviewees noted that these collaborations also provide employees with access to resources critical to developing in-demand skills. For example, Pluralsight is used to conduct skill assessments and provide targeted learning pathways based on proficiency levels—beginner, intermediate, and advanced. This structured approach supports continuous learning and ensures that employees maintain relevant competencies.

The strategy of utilizing vendors and consulting firms aligns with findings from [40] and [54], who emphasize the importance of multifaceted collaboration and the use of external expertise to remain competitive in today’s highly globalized market, which is constantly disrupted by technological change. The interviewees’ organization also sends employees to conferences hosted by vendors like Microsoft and Amazon, fostering direct exposure to leading-edge technology trends and innovations, including AI. Many interviewees described their organizations’ balanced approach, combining top-down strategic planning with bottom-up employee feedback. They mentioned that staff feedback gathered through surveys, check-ins, and voluntary skill evaluations plays a vital role in identifying immediate training needs. The organization has a dedicated talent development division that focuses on skill gap analyses and efficient resource allocation. For example, one interviewee noted that skill tracking enables employees to locate proficient colleagues in specific tools, such as Power BI, thus facilitating knowledge sharing and enhancing internal service delivery.

The dual approach of formal planning and informal feedback aligns with methods recommended by [17], who asserted that organizations gain a clearer understanding of skill gaps and developmental needs by involving employees in the feedback loop, particularly by setting specific and challenging goals. This inclusive model is particularly effective in fostering a responsive and adaptive workforce capable of swiftly adjusting to industry demands. The case study organizations lack formal partnerships with universities and colleges. However, one of the interviewees indicated informal ties to the University of Washington through personal connections of the university’s staff who were interested in the organization’s business. These academic collaborations provide a secondary channel for understanding the skills that will be critical for future roles in technology.

The case study organization also collaborates with local community colleges to keep technical skill curricula aligned with industry needs. Community colleges are recognized for their flexibility and affordability, making them accessible and effective venues for workforce development ([50]). These institutions can quickly adapt programs to reflect emerging technologies and labor demands. Studies show that such partnerships between employers and colleges help close skill gaps in technical roles ([21]). This is especially true when curricula incorporate authentic learning experiences, including work-based projects and soft-skills training.

The third question that research participants asked was how they perceived the impact of AI on current and future workforce development. The interviewees’ responses are summarized below.

Interviewees generally foresee AI dramatically enhancing productivity across various roles by taking over repetitive tasks and providing faster access to information. Interviewees believe tools like Microsoft Copilot and GitHub Copilot will streamline coding and customer service processes, highlighting a growing trend toward automation in entry-level tasks such as data entry and customer service. Interviewees believe that such automation frees professionals from routine work, enabling them to focus on higher-order responsibilities such as problem-solving, ethical decision-making, and creative solutions. This shift in responsibilities echoes the findings of [34], who emphasize the importance of balancing AI-driven job automation with the need to preserve the core capabilities of professionals in roles that require human judgment and critical thinking. Moreover, some interviewees emphasized that professionals in knowledge management and office administration roles may benefit from AI that simplifies information retrieval, scheduling, and reporting, thereby streamlining workflows and boosting daily productivity. This view aligns with the findings of [54], who concluded that automating most of today’s back-office and administrative tasks is inevitable.

As AI gains traction, ethical use, privacy, and data security are becoming critical focus areas, particularly within government roles where public trust and regulatory compliance are paramount ([4]). Interviewees emphasized the importance of training staff on AI and its responsible use, including reporting ethical issues and managing biases and inaccuracies in AI-generated information. Most interviewees believe privacy, security, DevOps, and application development roles will be particularly impacted, as these professionals must develop specialized knowledge to address AI’s complexities. As AI continues to integrate into workflows, interviewees identified a need for upskilling among technology professionals, especially those in roles vulnerable to automation. Interviewees highlighted that information technology, customer service, and project management professionals must develop new competencies in AI oversight, ethical implementation, and strategic analysis to maintain relevance. However, although interviewees mentioned the importance of upskilling the current workforce as a possibility, no one recognized that some job functions would be permanently replaced by AI and become obsolete in the future ([54]). The research participants’ views on the potential impact of AI to displace employees from their current positions are summarized in Figure 3. The data show that at least 50% of the interviewees do not believe AI will affect current job positions in the near future, which is contrary to predictions about the future of workforces ([65]).

Figure 3. Research participants’ views on the impact of AI on job displacement.

A recurring theme among interviewees was the potential budgetary impact and challenges to public perception associated with AI integration. Some interviewees noted that as AI takes on more routine tasks, public expectations for lower costs may arise, especially in government settings, where budget allocations are often scrutinized. Additionally, the public might question the need for specific roles if technology can perform them cost-effectively. Organizations, therefore, must balance AI-driven efficiency with the perceived value of human contributions, particularly in roles where AI cannot replicate human insight, empathy, and complex decision-making, as discussed by [26]. These budgetary and perception challenges are also identified in research studies such as [4], which emphasize that organizations in democratic societies expect transparent strategies to communicate the value of human-AI collaboration and gain public trust. In general, interviewees agree that emerging technologies are expected to impact various digital skills and roles, particularly by automating repetitive tasks, enhancing productivity, and creating demand for ethics, privacy, and security expertise. In that effect, organizations must develop policies, training programs, and upskilling pathways to adapt to these technological shifts, ensuring that professionals can take on new responsibilities where human judgment is irreplaceable.

The fourth question asked research participants about existing efforts, challenges, and success stories related to upskilling and reskilling technology professionals in the case study organization. The findings reveal that the case study organization is implementing various upskilling initiatives to align with emerging technology, which has many challenges and some success stories, as discussed below.

Interviewees stated that the predominant means the organizations currently use to provide skill development is the online training platform Pluralsight. The platform provides targeted training in technology skills such as Agile, Scrum, Cloud Computing, AI, and Cybersecurity, among others. The platform has enabled selected employees to practice cloud skills in a simulated environment, reducing the risk of exposing the organization’s data and infrastructure while facilitating skill acquisition. Moreover, some interviewees from the talent development division stated that it uses various engaging events to address critical areas like security and project management, such as Cybersecurity Awareness Month and weekly Talent Development Sessions, which are open to all employees in the IT department. As discussed by [5], the ongoing global increase in the market share of online platforms indicates that e-learning platforms are becoming effective means of providing scalable and secure learning environments and, hence, can be used for continuous workforce development.

According to the research participants, upskilling efforts are largely confined to departmental initiatives rather than citywide programs. However, the organization also provides career development scholarships, allowing employees to apply for individual training funding, though this initiative recently faced funding cuts. Some interviewees expressed that a more structured, role-embedded approach would be more effective. Aligning upskilling with job roles would allow employees to develop skills aligned with their responsibilities during work hours rather than relying on self-driven learning outside of work. This strategy aligns with recommendations by [12], who suggest that aligning training with job functions and employee goals enhances motivation and relevance, particularly when training is integrated into work routines and augmented by reward, recognition, and employee promotion. Challenges here include the fast pace of technological change, which requires establishing foundational knowledge before employees can advance to more specialized training, as discussed in [54].

Interviewees highlighted the importance of creating a culture that prioritizes learning and professional development, shifting away from traditional, compulsory training toward fostering intrinsic motivation for learning. This culture of continuous learning is promoted through initiatives such as weekly learning sessions open to all staff and engagement campaigns that encourage skill development as part of daily work. Creating such a culture, however, is challenging, as it requires leadership commitment and time-management strategies that enable employees to participate in training without detracting from their regular responsibilities. As discussed in [54] and [12], developing a culture of continuous learning is critical for long-term skill retention and adaptation in the tech sector. However, it requires systemic support to become truly effective.

According to the interviewees, the common challenges identified include time constraints, budget limitations, and the rapid evolution of technology skills. As is true for many organizations, the case study organization also faces difficulties ensuring employees can allocate time for training while managing their workloads ([32]). Additionally, interviewees raised concerns about funding cuts, including those affecting the career scholarship program, which limits the accessibility and scope of available training. The rapid advancement of technology also requires that foundational skills be developed before advanced training can be pursued, a process that can be challenging to manage without a structured, role-specific approach. Organizations find that a human-centric approach, consulting employees on their goals and challenges, and aligning skill development with their roles, is more effective than relying solely on employees to self-develop. This aligns with recent studies that suggest skill development strategies must be systemic, supported, individually tailored, and role-focused to effectively address the tech workforce’s fast-changing needs ([12]).

Thus, organizations need to employ various strategies to support upskilling and reskilling, including using online learning platforms, conducting skill gap analyses, and fostering a culture of continuous learning. Challenges related to time, funding, and rapidly evolving skills highlight the need for structured, job-integrated learning approaches. By embedding skill development within roles and aligning training with organizational goals, these initiatives can more effectively prepare the workforce for the future of technology. The main challenges reported include limited licenses due to cost and scheduling conflicts, as many employees are expected to complete training during personal time. To mitigate these issues, the case study organization is working to foster a culture that supports continuous learning. By doing so, the organization recognizes that skill-building is a strategic priority.

The fifth question was how the case study organization measures the effectiveness and success of its upskilling and reskilling programs. According to the research participants, the case study organization uses a variety of metrics to assess the success of upskilling and reskilling initiatives, often focusing on platform usage, skill assessments, and certification completions. The various metrics currently used at the case study organization are summarized below.

The case study organization uses tools like Pluralsight and Cornerstone to monitor program participation and proficiency progress. These platforms provide data on course popularity, time spent on specific learning modules, and skill assessment results, helping the organization gauge employee engagement and progression at various skill levels. For instance, Pluralsight’s reporting feature, which includes the number of assessments taken and the time employees dedicate to each course, will provide reportable metrics. This data directly measures the program’s reach and usage, allowing managers to identify popular content and allocate resources to high-demand skills. [12] recommend using learning management system performance metrics to track training participation and conduct skill assessments as an effective method for measuring engagement and identifying where employees may need further training. However, the researcher emphasizes that organizations should not rely on these metrics, as they are usage-focused and may not fully capture the impact of upskilling/reskilling on real-world job performance.

Another practical approach used by the case study organization is to measure the success of upskilling by correlating tool adoption rates with changes in support ticket volume before and after training. For example, some interviewees described tracking specific software features, such as those in Microsoft Teams or SharePoint, to determine how effectively employees apply new skills in their roles. Such an approach helped the organization identify a correlation between a high volume of support tickets and users’ challenges with the tool and, hence, implement targeted training to address these issues. They then monitored subsequent support requests and found a reduction in tickets as user competency increased, a strong indicator of successful skill-building. The researcher found that this unique approach of evaluating training success based on outcomes in the case study organization was effective. Such an approach ensures that skill-building efforts directly address operational challenges, providing measurable improvements in employee performance and productivity.

While metrics provide valuable insights into program participation and basic competency levels, interviewees acknowledged limitations in the case study organization’s current measurement approaches, particularly regarding qualitative metrics such as robust methods to assess employees’ confidence and readiness after training, which are essential for gauging the broader impact of upskilling. Interviewees also added the shortcomings of tracking milestone achievements, such as certifications or degrees, and the need to focus on metrics that measure long-term skill retention or job performance improvements, which are more challenging to quantify ([12]). Several interviewees suggested that introducing qualitative feedback mechanisms, such as surveys or interviews, could provide a more holistic understanding of training outcomes. One interviewee noted that their organization lacks formal metrics for tracking AI-related upskilling but suggested that creating AI-focused roles, such as a Chief AI Officer, could help establish metrics aligned with AI ethics, strategy, and workforce development. According to this interviewee, a dedicated AI leadership role would provide strategic oversight, guide policy development, identify roles impacted by AI, and proactively build relevant skills to ensure a smooth transition for employees. This recommendation aligns with recent proposals by [46] for developing a region- or industry-specific AI policy framework.

Organizations use a range of metrics to evaluate the success of upskilling and reskilling initiatives. These include measures such as platform usage data, skill assessments, support ticket volumes, and feature adoption rates. While these indicators effectively track engagement and proficiency, they often fail to capture qualitative outcomes like employee readiness and confidence. Incorporating qualitative feedback can help fill this gap and offer a more holistic view of training effectiveness. As AI integration becomes more prevalent, organizations may also benefit from establishing dedicated roles and frameworks focused on AI ethics and strategy. Such efforts can ensure workforce readiness and better align skills with the demands of emerging technologies.

In government and private sectors, organizations implement structured yet adaptable strategies to align workforce skills with emerging technological demands, particularly AI-driven ones. The sixth interview question was about how the case study organization plans to ensure sustainable, future-ready workforce development. Research participants shared approaches ranging from multi-tiered professional development initiatives to data-driven skill-mapping tools, each addressing the unique challenges of preparing for disruptive technologies while acknowledging current resource limitations. One of the research participants suggested a multifaceted strategy to advance skill readiness, emphasizing adaptability and leadership commitment, including attending annual learning conferences, securing funding for certifications, and pursuing other professional development initiatives. According to this participant, the new CTO plays a key role in pushing for skill development to be embedded in the organization’s 2025 strategic agenda. While budget constraints and hiring freezes limit some initiatives, the executive leadership’s dedication reflects an awareness that skill-building is central to navigating technological disruptions.

[8] highlight that executive buy-in is a crucial factor in the success of upskilling programs. Leadership support for strategic skill development helps establish a culture of continuous learning and adaptability across the workforce. Some interviewees recommend using gamification to increase employee engagement in AI upskilling, for example, by incorporating beginner-level AI courses into a competitive campaign. This approach fosters enthusiasm and emphasizes the importance of acquiring AI-related skills. Weekly dedicated training time further demonstrates management’s commitment to workforce development. [12] also found that gamification enhances engagement and retention in training, especially for emerging technology skills.

A few interviewees described using a “services and skills matrix” that maps required competencies across organizational functions, allowing for targeted identification of skill gaps in emerging areas such as generative AI. By documenting required skills at novice, intermediate, and expert levels, this matrix provides a clear view of where development is needed to align with future technological advancements, participants suggested. The organization can proactively allocate training resources and connect teams with specific upskilling opportunities as AI becomes more prevalent. According to [30], developing a structured skills matrix and a well-established knowledge exchange platform will enable organizations to allocate resources strategically, ensuring workforce development is aligned with long-term goals and reducing the risk of reactive, ad hoc training. One interviewee noted that skill development is managed at the departmental level without a citywide approach, with proactive managers identifying relevant skills independently. According to this participant, this method tends to be reactive, addressing immediate needs rather than preparing for future disruptions, potentially hindering sustainable workforce development. Research by [37] recommended a centralized knowledge-sharing hub, as decentralized approaches may lead to fragmented skill-building and gaps in key areas, where a unified, forward-looking strategy is necessary to anticipate and prepare for industry changes.

As organizations strive to ensure sustainable skill development in anticipation of future disruptions, structured frameworks such as the services and skills matrix, along with gamification initiatives, play a key role. These tools offer targeted engagement and efficient resource allocation. However, effective implementation also depends on strong leadership commitment and a clearly defined strategic vision. Challenges persist, especially in organizations with decentralized or department-specific training initiatives. Such fragmentation can hinder their ability to respond proactively to rapid technological changes. Aligning skill development with strategic technology plans can help build a more adaptable and resilient workforce capable of managing emerging complexities.

The rapid evolution of disruptive technologies, particularly artificial intelligence (AI), has necessitated a shift in workforce policies and programs ([26]; [68]). Hence, research participants were asked to forward their views on how organizational policies and programs must be adjusted to accommodate technological changes. Interviewees recognized the importance of policy framework adjustment, effective change management, continuous learning, and implementation that ensures equity. Most interviewees recognized that the case study organization, as a public-sector organization, is lagging in initiating, developing, and implementing policies to proactively integrate disruptive technologies. However, almost all interviewees acknowledged the leadership team’s initiative to develop an AI policy as a good start.

As noted by the interviewees and confirmed by the researcher, the newly developed AI policy emphasizes ethical use, privacy, and equity, but lacks guidance on employee skill development and technological adoption. This gap highlights a missed opportunity to prepare the workforce for AI integration. Recent studies also recommend that government-led AI policies not only promote responsible deployment but also prioritize workforce readiness (Karaboğa et al., 2020; [55]). One interviewee emphasized the importance of broader technological adaptation frameworks that ensure the ethical use of organizational funds and resources. In addition to governance, organizations must equip employees with the knowledge and skills to apply new technologies responsibly. Doing so can reduce risks associated with AI and automation while enhancing their overall benefits.

The interviewees highlighted the critical role of change management in navigating technological disruptions, emphasizing the importance of maintaining operational stability while implementing technological advancements. According to the interviewees, a designated change management lead will be responsible for assessing the impact of new technologies, identifying potential resistance, and coaching staff through the transition. This perspective aligns with existing research highlighting the effectiveness of change management strategies, such as structured training programs and phased technology rollouts, to help organizations transition smoothly while minimizing disruption (Andronikidis, 2025). The interviewee noted that a recent payroll system upgrade in their organization faced significant challenges due to inadequate change management planning. This real-world example underscores the importance of strategic planning in mitigating resistance and ensuring the smooth implementation of upskilling efforts.

A key theme in the interview was the importance of fostering a growth mindset and promoting lifelong learning among employees. Interviewees emphasized that technologists and professionals must stay open-minded and continually update their skills to remain relevant in a rapidly changing environment. The talent development division within their organization plays an active role in encouraging a culture of learning and adaptability. This organizational support helps employees view learning as an ongoing responsibility rather than a one-time event. Scholarly research supports this perspective, highlighting that continuous professional development is critical for workforce resilience. According to [11], upskilling and self-directed learning are essential for organizations to sustain a competitive advantage.

Another significant point discussed in the interview was equity and inclusivity. Research participants were asked to share their views on how to ensure equal access to upskilling and reskilling opportunities within the organization, particularly for employees with little or no digital skills. Most interviewees emphasized the importance of ensuring equity in providing upskilling and reskilling opportunities to employees, including using an “equity toolkit” in recruitment processes and offering inclusive internship programs, such as paid summer youth initiatives, to address employees with different backgrounds and technological know-how. Most interviewees were concerned that technological changes may exacerbate existing inequalities and that their organization should create opportunities for growth for those employees with less or no digital skills. This aligns with research indicating the need to develop equitable workforce policies that provide equal access to training, resources, and job opportunities so that technological advancements benefit all demographics rather than increasing the digital divide ([56]).

Another approach suggested by most interviewees is to design targeted upskilling programs for positions susceptible to automation or displacement by artificial intelligence. According to the research participants, because technological changes affect job positions differently, employees in roles potentially replaceable by AI should be provided with comprehensive retraining programs that include career transition opportunities. These views of the research participants are supported by recent research that showed that companies with targeted reskilling programs effectively address skill gaps created by technological advancement ([18]). Interviewees also suggested another way to ensure equitable access to upskilling and reskilling: a tiered training track ranging from beginner to advanced levels, so opportunities cater to varied skill levels. According to the interviewees, this can be achieved by actively encouraging participation from entry-level employees, particularly those from underrepresented backgrounds and individuals with less digital skills, to promote upward mobility and workforce diversity. This view of the interviewees is supported by a recent study by [42], who showed the importance of categorizing employees into groups that encourage interaction and mutual support within a continuous learning environment.

The interviewees also suggested ensuring equity in upskilling and reskilling by utilizing adaptive digital learning platforms that allow employees to self-assess their skills and generate customized learning paths. Although this approach allows personalized learning for novice and experienced employees, it may not be ideal for those with minimal digital skills because the platforms require some digital literacy. Therefore, organizations need to find ways to support marginalized groups to address equity among employees with a broad spectrum of skills, including mentoring programs and cooperative learning strategies, as discussed in [42].

As previously mentioned, this study focuses on understanding the impact of disruptive technologies, particularly AI, on the upskilling and reskilling of technology professionals. The case study organization selected for this research is a public organization, the City of Seattle. Although the diversity of the research participants was well designed (two developers/managers, one from HR, two from the talent development division, and one from the leadership team), the idea saturation was reached so quickly that there was no need to add more participants. However, the insights obtained from these few individuals were substantial for the research, as all the interviewees were highly experienced and had historical knowledge of the organization and of ongoing technological and societal changes. The inability to include the view of professionals and leaders from other departments of the organization, the private sector, and shortcomings in understanding the extent of the technological change and its impact by the research participants can be considered significant limitations of this study.

The researcher also realized that some interviewees underestimated the impact of disruptive technology on the current and future workforce and did not seem to appreciate the drastic impact of AI and other disruptive technologies. One even said, “I do not consider AI a disruptive technology”. A 2020 study by Princeton University students, titled “Future of Work for the City of Seattle,” proposed several workforce development strategies. However, the researcher found no evidence of a structured upskilling and reskilling initiative within the city’s talent development division. Aside from offering access to open learning platforms such as Pluralsight and, more recently, LinkedIn Learning, there appeared to be limited coordinated efforts to support systematic skill development. Therefore, the city’s talent development division should develop a comprehensive workforce development strategy that is dynamic, consistently evaluated, and implemented throughout the organization.

The study aimed to answer two major research questions, with the corresponding sub-questions. The first research question seeks to identify a set of skills that will be in high demand in the future and those that may be significantly affected by disruptive technologies, AI in particular. The second research question evaluates the strategies, successes, and challenges of current upskilling and reskilling efforts, and how technology companies and information technology departments within organizations may design a sustainable workforce as disruptive technologies continue to evolve.

The interview with research participants from the case study organization helped validate and compare the findings of other research referenced in this study and answer the research questions. For the first research question, research participants were asked about their views on the skill sets that current upskilling and reskilling efforts should focus on. Interviewees consistently mentioned AI (Artificial Intelligence), Power BI, Office Applications (Excel, PowerPoint, SharePoint, Teams, Copilot, OneDrive), Cloud-based computing, Project management, Critical thinking skills, Cyber Security, Data analysis, Business Process Automation, Digital Collaboration, Communication, Generating KPIs, cross-project collaboration, while emphasizing the importance of lifelong learning and adaptability.

The technological skills mentioned by the research participants are consistent with other researchers’ findings. The findings show that, at least for the case study organization, having foundational digital skills along with soft skills such as critical thinking and communication is crucial for the future of the workforce. Although interviewees have a good awareness of AI and recognize it as becoming one of the skills in demand for the future, the case study organization currently neither uses AI for any of its job functions nor approves any AI models, mainly for fear of privacy and data security. However, there is an ongoing effort to create awareness of AI by encouraging employees to take AI courses on Pluralsight, and the leadership has been developing an AI policy. Most interviewees have not thought much about which of the existing job functions and skills will be replaced by AI but are unable to list skills that will be at high risk of replacement by AI. However, some of them recognized the augmentative power of AI while being inclined to deny that the technology will make some job positions obsolete.

Developing a future-ready workforce requires proper consideration of technological trends, proactive leadership that makes timely decisions, investment in talent development, and employees’ willingness to adapt to changes. As discussed above, the case study organization is a public organization with a traditional hierarchical structure that increases the challenges of adopting disruptive technologies, let alone taking swift action in talent development. In this regard, private organizations and tech companies may be better suited to adapt and prepare their workforce for the future.

The current talent development framework in the case study organization follows the traditional Attract◊Develop◊Retain scheme ([28]), which assumes educational institutions produce trainable talent that can be competitively recruited by providing attractive packages. Organizations develop those talents internally by providing training that meets the organizational need, motivates the employee, ensures the maximum potential of the employee, and retains the best talent as long as possible through rewards and opportunities.

Due to technological disruptions, most process-based tasks can be easily automated. Hence, some job positions become irrelevant, and employees need to upskill their existing talent or acquire new skills through reskilling programs. This requires a paradigm shift from both the employee and the employer perspectives. As the case study organization’s IT department employees engaged in the study witnessed, the current talent development strategy focuses on providing self-learning opportunities on digital platforms. It also includes completing a few mandatory courses and attending unstructured meetings and conferences. There is no formal and comprehensive assessment of the organization’s current and future workforce needs and skill gap analysis that considers technological changes.

The success story in the case study organization includes using digital platforms that are open to all employees, the willingness of most employees to learn new skills and leadership talent development support. The case study organization has purchased unlimited licenses from Pluralsight and LinkedIn that enable employees to sharpen their skills or learn new ones anytime. There are also some efforts to guide employees to get training on some trending technologies, including AI. Although having digital platforms that provide accessible online training for almost all skills needed for a modern workplace is a great opportunity, studies showed that such a generic, one-fits-all approach would not be effective unless supported by a targeted, well-designed, comprehensive, individually tailored, rewarding upskilling and reskilling programs that are well supported by the leadership and continuously monitored and evaluated ([12]). The organization should develop an inventory of its current and future skill needs, identify those skills at risk of replacement, and provide guidance on employees’ learning paths. Providing employees with learning opportunities also needs to be supported by providing employees enough time to learn the skills, including dedicated work hours for training, perhaps with obligations to provide credentials obtained after training, and allowing them to demonstrate those skills on actual tasks, which will motivate them to become lifelong learners.

The challenges of having a well-structured upskilling and reskilling program in the case study organization include budget constraints, sluggishness to adapt to technological changes due to the hierarchical structure of the organization, underestimating the impact of disruptive technologies on the future of the workforce, and policy-related issues. Budget constraints have challenged the case study organization. Unfortunately, one of the recent cost reduction strategies was cutting part of the budget allocated for talent development, while technological disruption is at its peak. On the other hand, studies show that many jobs will become obsolete soon, while more jobs requiring new skills are created, necessitating inventive upskilling and reskilling programs. The case study organization’s slow adoption of new technologies and tools, such as AI, hinders the leadership from proactively acting and addressing the future challenges the organization’s workforce might face. The organization is currently, a few years after the release of disruptive AI tools, discussing the pros and cons of technology and the privacy and security challenges these technologies pose.

The researcher also noticed a quite established underestimation of the impact of disruptive technologies on the current workforce. In this case, it may be worth repeating the famous quote from [31], “AI won’t replace humans—but humans with AI will replace humans without AI”. Organizations need to realize that automation and AI will completely replace some existing job positions and should plan their talent development strategies accordingly. Employers need to proactively identify those job positions and employees who will be affected early and design a reskilling program that ensures talent retention. On the other hand, the future workforce should have new skills that did not exist before, and employees should have the resources and time to learn those new skills and be ready for those jobs. Moreover, although some of the current job functions may remain, the way of doing jobs will change, making upskilling highly relevant.

Although it is imperative to include most of the organization’s employees in upskilling and reskilling programs, there are a lot of challenges. First, the hierarchical structure of the case study organization challenged technological adoption. This is true even in the organization’s IT department, where most employees better understand the technological changes and tools. Secondly, the decision to make technological choices and adopt new technologies in public organizations also becomes more complicated due to political, economic, ethical, and societal factors. Existing data governance, security, and privacy policies will also impact decision-making on adopting technological changes. Therefore, regulatory and compliance policies must also be reviewed to accommodate technology adoption while being vigilant of people’s safety, privacy, and security.

This qualitative case study research approach, supported by IT and talent development professionals with strong organizational knowledge and technical expertise in the technology field, is justifiable. However, due to the slow adoption of technology in the case study organization—and likely in many public institutions—there are barriers to planning and executing an aggressive workforce upskilling and reskilling strategy. As a result, the research contribution is limited to proposing a conceptual talent development framework that organizations can adopt to build a sustainable, future-ready workforce. Given that disruptive technologies, including AI, pose significant threats to existing jobs in both public and private sectors, this research offers value by introducing a talent development strategy that integrates technological impact, organizational strategy, employee adaptability, educational institutions, industry stakeholders, and policy development. These interconnected elements are essential for preparing organizations for future workforce demands. The details of the proposed conceptual model are discussed below.