Information systems are fundamental to managing student admissions while increasing operational efficiency, transparency, and accessibility in higher education institutions (HEIs) [7]. Worldwide, online admission systems have increasingly replaced manual procedures, thereby lowering administrative costs and processing times while improving data accuracy and service quality [8]. In Tanzania, digital admission platforms coordinated by the Tanzania Commission for Universities (TCU) for universities and the National Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (NACTVET) for technical and vocational institutions have become crucial for widening participation in higher education and technical education in response to rising student demand. Applicants submit their applications through institutions’ online admission systems in line with the admission guidelines issued by TCU and NACTVET. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of these systems is still limited by insufficient digital infrastructure, inadequate digital literacy, and unequal access to information and communication technology (ICT) resources, especially for students in semi-urban and rural areas [9].

The digital divide shows differences in access to digital technologies, digital skills, internet connectivity, and the results that follow from their use [10]. It offers a useful conceptual lens for analyzing differences in how digital tools are applied. In Tanzania, empirical findings show that shortcomings in digital literacy support, restricted ICT infrastructure, and limited institutional capacity reduce students’ ability to use digital technologies effectively in higher education [9]. Comparable problems have also been observed throughout East Africa. In Kenya, notable differences in digital access and competencies are evident among university students, especially across institutions and socio-economic groups [11]. Similarly, research in Uganda indicates that weak internet connectivity, high data costs, and insufficient ICT skills continue to be major obstacles to students’ involvement in online learning [12]. Taken together, these results imply that socio-economic and geographic inequalities still hinder fair access to digital higher education services across East Africa.

System usability is a key factor in whether information systems are successfully adopted and consistently used. Human-computer interaction research shows that user-friendly interfaces, intuitive navigation, and clear guidance improve system acceptance and user satisfaction [13]. Evidence from East Africa further suggests that students’ perceived ease of use of digital systems strongly affects their acceptance and ongoing use, whereas poor interface design and insufficient user support lower system utilization [3]. Likewise, research in Tanzania highlights usability problems such as complex interfaces, inadequate navigation, insufficient user support, and limited guidance as major obstacles to effective use of digital systems, especially for first-time users with limited digital competencies [14].

Socio-economic factors such as household income, educational history, and social support substantially shape students’ capacity to interact with digital systems. Digital literacy, understood as the capacity to access, appraise, and effectively use digital technologies, is central to strengthening students’ confidence and achievement when managing online application procedures. Research indicates that greater digital literacy enhances users’ motivation and capability to use digital technologies in higher education settings [15]. In Tanzania, low levels of digital literacy among secondary school graduates remain a continuing concern, frequently making it necessary for applicants to rely on support from family members, teachers, or cybercafé staff during the higher education application process [16][17]. Moreover, recent studies across East Africa suggest that digital literacy programs can enhance individuals’ capacity to access and use digital technologies effectively, strengthening digital inclusion and lowering barriers to participation in digital services [18].

The reviewed literature suggests that, although digital information systems have significantly increased the efficiency and transparency of higher education application processes, ongoing barriers linked to the digital divide, system usability, and socio-economic disparities continue to limit equitable access, especially in developing countries [10][19]. Prior studies in Tanzania and the wider East African region have largely emphasized national or institutional viewpoints, with comparatively little empirical attention given to the local realities of prospective applicants, particularly those living in semi-urban areas [3]. In addition, existing studies often treat digital access, system usability, and digital literacy as separate concerns, which limits a complete understanding of the interrelated difficulties encountered by first-time applicants. To close these gaps, this study examines how digital barriers, constraints in system usability, and socio-economic factors jointly affect first-time applicants in Tabora Municipal Council. By supplying context-specific empirical insights, the study strengthens the current knowledge base and provides actionable guidance for creating more inclusive, user-centred higher education application systems in TanzaniaThis investigation is underpinned by the Digital Divide Theory and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). The Digital Divide Theory explains the disparities in access to digital technologies and competencies that stem from socio-economic and geographic factors, thereby supporting the aim of investigating barriers to equitable access to higher education application systems [10]. The Technology Acceptance Model elucidates the utilization of systems based on perceived utility and perceived ease of use, aligning with the evaluation of the usability and user experience of digital application platforms [13].

The theoretical frameworks are operationalized by converting their principal concepts into quantifiable study variables. The Digital Divide Theory is employed by analyzing disparities in access to devices, internet connectivity, affordability, geographic location, and digital skills, which collectively signify barriers to equitable utilization of higher education application systems. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is operationalized by assessing applicants’ perceived usefulness (e.g., efficiency, transparency, time, and cost savings) and perceived ease of use (e.g., clarity, navigation, language, and system complexity). Collectively, these frameworks interlink access-related constraints with user perceptions to explain the processes of system adoption and use.

The Digital Divide Theory and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) informed the design of questionnaire items and interview questions by shaping how access-related obstacles such as device availability, internet connectivity, affordability, and digital skills were evaluated, alongside users’ perceptions of system usefulness, ease of use, and acceptance of the online application system.

Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data came from 111 respondents: 100 participants completed structured questionnaires, and 11 participants took part in semi-structured interviews. The respondents were Form Four, Form Six, and diploma applicants with experience using the HEI online application system. The semi-structured interviews involved purposively selected respondents to complement questionnaire findings and yield deeper insight into their experiences. These qualitative interviews examined key themes, including internet connectivity, internet affordability, digital literacy, access to digital devices, technical support, and recommendations for enhancing the effectiveness and inclusiveness of the online application process. Secondary data were obtained by reviewing relevant journals, textbooks, government documents, institutional publications, and reputable online sources to provide contextual and theoretical support for the study. Figure 1 demonstrates the summary of the respondents who were utilized in this study, experienced and non-experienced with the online administration systems.

Figure 1. Summary of respondents.

Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and presented in tables generated through SPSS. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis and reported narratively to complement the quantitative findings. To ensure the validity and reliability of the research instruments, a pilot study was conducted among a small group of students at Tanzania Public Service College (TPSC), Tabora Campus. Feedback from the pilot informed refinement of the instruments before the main data collection. Ethical considerations were strictly observed. Permission was obtained from relevant authorities, and informed consent was secured from all participants. Confidentiality and anonymity of respondents were maintained throughout the study.

The demographic characteristics of the 111 respondents in Table 1 show that the majority were aged 19 - 35 years (63.1%), with smaller groups aged 15 - 18 years (33.3%) and ≥36 years (3.6%). A significant gender imbalance was observed, with females comprising 77.5%. Nearly half of the respondents completed Form Four (49.5%), followed by those with Form Six (39.6%) and Diploma holders (10.8%). The sample mainly consisted of young adults with secondary education, influencing their viewpoints and participation. The gender disparity must be acknowledged when analyzing gender-related results and the applicability of the findings. Contextualize the interpretation of the study’s findings and their broader applicability.

Table 1. Diversity of respondents.

Digital barriers refer to the difficulties reported by respondents in accessing, using, and completing the online application process. In this study, digital barriers were operationalized using respondents’ experiences with internet connectivity, internet costs, digital skills, access to devices, and the availability of technical support.

The findings indicate that a majority of respondents (63.1%) accessed application systems using personal digital devices, as shown in Table 2, demonstrating substantial reliance on mobile technologies in the application process. Nevertheless, the use of shared devices (9.0%), internet cafés (26.1%), and others (3.6%) points to disparities in access to digital resources. This finding reflects the continuing digital divide across Tanzanian higher education institutions; differences in access to digital technologies, internet connectivity, affordability, and digital literacy still place students from low-income households at a disadvantage, which in turn constrains their meaningful participation in digital learning and online academic services [17].

Table 2. Devices used to access the application system.

Poor internet connectivity emerged as the most frequently reported challenge (40.0%), as depicted in Table 3, largely attributable to inadequate ICT infrastructure and unstable network coverage, especially outside major urban centers. High internet data costs (22.5%) further constrained system utilization, as most applicants relied on prepaid mobile data, thereby increasing the financial burden of completing online applications. These findings are consistent with prior studies identifying infrastructure limitations and affordability constraints as significant barriers to digital service access in Tanzania [1].

Table 3. Barriers encountered by the respondents.

System usability challenges were also evident. Complicated interfaces (10.8%) and limited technical support (7.2%) suggest that application platforms are not sufficiently designed to accommodate first-time users with varying levels of digital competence. Existing literature similarly observes that weak system design and inadequate user support reduce the effectiveness of e-education and e-government platforms in developing countries.

25.2% of respondents reported limited digital skills, particularly among Form Four applicants, indicating insufficient exposure to ICT at lower levels of education. This finding aligns with research demonstrating that inadequate ICT training adversely affects students’ ability to effectively utilize online application systems.

The study, as shown in Table 4, illustrates that technological, infrastructural, and socio-economic elements significantly hindered students’ access to higher learning institutions’ application systems. While 30.2% of respondents reported consistent internet access, the majority (63.2%) described it as sometimes reliable, and 6.6% faced rare or unreliable connectivity, indicating ongoing infrastructural challenges [3].

Financial obstacles were significant, with 66.7% noting that internet or digital device costs affected their application processes, including 38.7% citing moderate effects and 18.0% strong effects. Digital literacy was identified as a key limitation, as 69.3% experienced moderate to severe impacts, and 88.3% recognized that inadequate skills hindered their ability to navigate the system independently.

To address these issues, applicants predominantly depended on informal support networks, especially family members (≈40%), followed by friends, educators, and ICT personnel. Overall, the findings suggest that infrastructural deficiencies, financial limitations, and inadequate digital skills converge to create complex barriers to equitable access.

Table 4. Factors affecting students’ access to higher learning institution application systems (N = 111).

Effectiveness and inclusiveness describe how far the online application system of a higher education institution allows students to complete the admission process efficiently, accurately, and fairly. These concepts were assessed based on respondents’ perceptions of system usability, reliability, ease of use, accessibility, internet affordability, the availability of support services, and their capacity to participate despite digital constraints.

The majority of participants regarded the system as inclusive, with 45.0% rating it moderately and 42.3% as very inclusive. Conversely, 9.9% described it as slightly inclusive, and 5.4% viewed it as not inclusive as shown in Table 5. Overall, the findings suggest that most respondents hold a positive view of the current higher education application system’s inclusiveness, despite a minority expressing less favorable opinions.

Table 5. Perceived inclusiveness of the current higher education institution application system (N = 111).

Table 6. Respondents’ recommendations for improving higher learning institution application system.

The data derived from the participants illustrates substantial endorsement for a variety of enhancement methodologies. Specifically, 43 participants (38.7%) ardently advocated for the enhancement of internet affordability. Moreover, 32 participants (28.8%) accentuated the necessity for explicit guidelines and instructional tutorials to assist applicants throughout the application procedure. The simplification of system interfaces was suggested by 19 participants (17.1%), whereas 22 participants underscored the significance of establishing help desks or application support centers to furnish prompt assistance, as delineated in Table 6.

In addition, training and orientation sessions for prospective applicants received considerable support, highlighting the imperative for capacity-building initiatives alongside technological advancements. A lesser segment of participants (3 participants, 2.7%) proposed the implementation of multilingual system support, while alternative recommendations constituted 1.8% of the collected responses.

This study examined the challenges new students encounter when using digital systems for higher education in Tanzania, with a focus on Tabora Municipal Council. Overall, the results suggest that digital application systems enhance the efficiency and transparency of admissions, but their impact is limited by weak internet connectivity, high internet costs, restricted access to digital devices, insufficient digital literacy, and usability problems within the systems. These findings align with recent research indicating that digital literacy and supportive digital environments strongly affect students’ effective use of digital systems in higher learning institutions [17] and with the Digital Divide Theory [10].

The study further found that many applicants seek help from family members, teachers, peers, and cybercafé operators, underscoring the role of social support in reducing digital barriers. To advance equitable access, policymakers and higher education institutions should strengthen digital infrastructure, reduce internet affordability constraints, strengthen digital literacy, streamline application systems, and implement inclusive, user-centred designs that meet applicants’ varied needs.

These findings should be considered alongside several limitations. The study took place in a single municipal council and used non-probability sampling, which may restrict the generalizability of the results. In addition, gender imbalance among respondents may have affected the findings. Future research should use probability sampling, recruit participants from multiple regions, and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions designed to improve digital inclusion and access to higher education application systems.

Based on the study’s findings, it is recommended that the Government and relevant stakeholders enhance internet affordability and reliability, particularly in rural and economically disadvantaged regions, to promote equitable access to higher education application systems. Higher education institutions and system developers should streamline application interfaces and provide clear guidelines and user tutorials to assist first-time applicants. Additionally, targeted digital literacy training should be provided to prospective students, especially those completing Form Four and Form Six, to enhance their ability to effectively use online application systems. Establishing well-resourced help desks or application support centers at the institutional and municipal levels is also advised to deliver timely technical assistance. Furthermore, application systems should incorporate multilingual support and accessibility features to accommodate applicants with diverse linguistic backgrounds and disabilities. Continuous system monitoring and user feedback mechanisms should be strengthened to sustain improvements in system effectiveness and inclusiveness.