It is a prominent framework in vocational psychology that explains the processes of career interest development, educational and occupational choice, and performance attainment/persistence. This theory developed primarily by [37]. SCCT has evolved into a multifaceted model with five interrelated sub-models, addressing not only interest, choice, and performance but also satisfaction/well-being and career self-management across the lifespan. Interest Development Model includes self-efficacy beliefs, and outcome expectations. Choice Model includes choice goals/intentions, self-efficacy and outcome expectations, contextual influences, Performance Model includes ability/competence inputs, self-efficacy, outcome expectations goal-directed behavior. Satisfaction/Well-Being Model includes links to need satisfaction, goal progress, and environmental supports to domain-specific (e.g., job) and overall life satisfaction. Career Self-Management/Self-Regulation Model includes addresses adaptive career behaviors across the lifespan. The process of observational learning was governed by four key aspects: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Attention is a process in which people selectively observe and extract information from the ongoing modeled activities ([68]). The above-mentioned models’ impact on differentiations among the tertiary students.

This is a comprehensive macro-theory of human motivation, personality development, and well-being, primarily developed by [58]. It includes autonomy, competence and relatedness. When a student determines his or her aspirations independently, it is referred to as autonomy. Competing with others and developing oneself to become competent is known as competence, and sharing with friends, family, or others is referred to as relatedness.

This theory is one of the most influential frameworks in modern social sciences, particularly in sociology. It posits that individuals make decisions by rationally weighing costs and benefits to maximize their personal utility. It includes rationality, self-interest or utility maximization, cost-benefit calculation, and individualism or methodological individualism. [16] said that rational choice theories share with exchange theories a view of the actor as a rational, purposive agent motivated by maximizing rewards or realizing his interests. [48] said, the rational choice theory, also known as choice theory or rational action theory, is a theory for understanding and often modelling social and economic as well as individual behaviour. [17] said, in rational choice theories, individuals are seen as motivated by the wants or goals that express their ‘preferences’. The idea of ‘rational action’ has generally been taken to imply a conscious social actor engaging in deliberate calculative strategies. Students at tertiary level are very much calculative to choice their aspirations, which makes a difference to them.

The academic factors influencing students’ academic aspirations are compounded by family, school and personal factors including social support, academic self-concept and perceptions of the university environment ([49]). [6] established a positive relationship between parents’ education, the child’s academic ambition, the child’s effort and academic performance. [3] opined that strong financial status of families helps to improve students’ motivation, learning process and hence better academic performance. [44] said that occupational aspirations are “expressed career-related goals or choices” that provide important motivational momentum for career-related behaviors and future educational and career success. There are no gender disparities in occupational aspiration levels and academic performance of adolescent. [10] mentioned that there is a significant positive correlation between aim in life and attendance to lesson. [15] showed that parental migration, academic performance, mother’s educational aspirations for children, and close friends’ educational aspirations were the main factors associated with students’ educational aspiration-expectation discrepancies.

[4] mentioned that family members and teachers were the most influential factors in choosing academic subjects. [62] revealed that male students scored higher in psychological dimensions like self-esteem and socialization, while female students performed better in cultural preparation. [12] said that higher education is challenged to properly serve students of various backgrounds, academic levels, and current needs. The relevance of evidence-based practices to support student success comes into focus, particularly for those with recent academic struggles. [40] highlighted the need for academic support services to enhance student performance and career goals, emphasizing career aspirations as critical for academic success and a central concern for educational policy. Education policy is important for ensuring quality education and reducing brain drain.

[43] opined that brain drain among undergraduate students in Bangladesh has emerged as a phenomenon causing concerns over the capacity of the country to keep skilled talent. Identifying the motivations behind students choosing to study abroad will provide insights into the problems at hand. [29] mentioned that educational institutions demonstrate a significant protagonist in students’ employability. From the standpoint of Bangladesh, it appears that Bangladesh’s educational institutions have a noteworthy gap in ensuring its student’s employment. [22] indicated that the intervention strategy effectively improved, albeit partially, students’ understanding and perception of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The study advocates the integration of SDGs into higher education curricula to prepare better students for future challenges. [69] revealed that academic self-efficacy was found to have a direct positive effect on students’ aspirations, while problem-solving and self-awareness moderated this relationship by strengthening students’ confidence, self-regulation, and goal clarity. [42] said that adult learners enroll in basic education programs with the aspiration to enhance their academic qualifications and unlock better opportunities, the disappointing outcomes point to systemic issues within the education framework.

[26] found that statistically significant associations with educational aspirations for the factors parental educational level, father’s unemployment, doubts about the affordability of future study, school atmosphere, attitude towards school, social support from the father and a sense of coherence. [18] said that among the demographic characteristics used, educational level of the parents had the strongest effect on the students’ aspirations. Conversations with parents and aspirations of friends also influenced the respondents’ own future plans. [34] showed that complete alignment between high aspirations, high expectations and high achievement is the most important predictor for future educational behaviour among students. [35] mentioned that the significant role played by the home in shaping students’ level of aspiration, no matter what the income level or background of the family is. It becomes the foremost duty of parents to make every effort to create a conducive and healthy atmosphere in the home so as to sustain high educational aspirations in children.

[38] opined that educational aspiration is an important factor that motivates students for better academic success and also directs them in a better way that reflects the individual’s goals. [55] mentioned that Malaysia’s aspiration of becoming a hub of higher education is the distinctive driving force for them welcoming and implementing English medium instruction (EMI), while such spirit is absent in Bangladesh. [21] said that the relationship between aspirations, investment, and later outcomes is more complicated in the contexts where aspirations potentially outstrip an individual’s or family’s ability to reach them. [50] indicated that teachers do not significantly influence the career aspirations of students, parental influence is a major determinant in the career aspirations of students, peers influence the career aspirations of male and female students differently, the influence of peers on career aspirations of students does not vary on the basis of age and programme of study. Peers and parents determine to a large extent the decisions that students make concerning the careers they may want to pursue. [36] mentioned that aspiration level helps a student to increase self-confidence, helps in setting up goals, and avoid failure; however, all this is hindered due to the anxiety they experience about their set levels of aspirations. [25] showed significant positive correlation between educational aspiration and socio-economic status. [40] revealed that a significant association between undergraduate students’ career aspirations and academic achievement. They also found that there is no significant difference in career aspiration among students by gender. However, male and female students differed in academic achievement, with male students ranked higher than female students.

[65] mentioned that in the today era students are bound to face more pressure to do better in their education and as they are facing such problems in their day to day life, the concept of self and level of aspiration become more important. [30] emphasized that the effectiveness of learning specialized subjects during the junior year serves as a critical juncture influencing students’ willingness to pursue careers relevant to their majors and their level of career aspirations. [1] revealed that students’ aspirations are strongly influenced by their socioeconomic status, parental education, and perceptions of social mobility. Students from higher-income families generally exhibit stronger educational aspirations, while those from lower-income backgrounds may face barriers that prevent them from realizing their full academic potential. [69] opined that students with high aspiration goals tend to set more ambitious educational targets, pursue higher levels of academic achievement, and actively plan their career paths. In contrast, low aspirations can limit students’ academic engagement and reduce their future career opportunities. [60] found that parents’ aspirations are only weakly linked to achievement emotions, once parents’ expectations are controlled for. However, when parents’ aspirations exceeded their own expectations, this over-aspiration was predictive of greater anxiety and lower levels of pride in the same year. [52] provided detailed insights into the differentiated impacts of gender, commitment to schooling, and academic self-concept on Higher Education (HE) aspirations, and the potential impact of close role models. [33] mentioned that households play an essential role in shaping a child’s educational journey and future aspirations.

[32] said that career choice is one of the biggest dilemma and challenge in any student’s life. It involves interplay of many factors which are intricately intertwined. It is not a straightforward task and involves a difficult process of decision making. [7] opined that social and family factors are the strongest factors influencing students’ choices of their academic careers. [5] said that females have higher scores on career aspiration than males. [66] mentioned that government policy makers should consider various aspects, including personal and socioeconomic background and specialization of knowledge and skills, when planning employment opportunities for the university students, given that these issues substantially influence career choices in Bangladesh. [19] indicated a strong, significant relationship between Socio-Economic Status (SES) and academic success and a moderate relationship between SES and aspirations. High-SES students regularly outperformed their peers and were motivated to aim for professional careers, whereas low-SES students in low-SES households were generally inclined to follow vocational paths because of economic and social limitations.

[45] opined that the career choices of students are profoundly shaped by societal beliefs and conceptions about gender roles, often overshadowing their individual potentials, interests, values, and special abilities. [46] revealed that there are significant correlations among self-efficacy, academic motivation, and career aspirations. Students with higher self-efficacy exhibited stronger career aspirations, while those with greater academic motivation tended to have clearer career goals. [23] opined that there is a decline in students pursuing Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics (STEM) careers, and this has raised global concern. Despite these issues, no unstructured, broad, parsimonious and unambiguous quantitative instrument exists to probe student career aspirations. [57] mentioned that students have diverse career interests, but public sector jobs are most preferred. Parents and personal interests primarily influence career choices, with financial motivations also playing a key role. However, external figures like teachers have little impact. [56] opined that structured career planning programs can significantly enhance students’ ability to make informed decisions about their future. The differences in career aspirations based on income level and geographic region underline the need for more personalized career planning training, particularly in low-income areas where students may have fewer resources and less support. [13] mentioned that both peer and parental social contexts are related to students’ career aspirations, with descriptive peer norms and injunctive peer and parent norms being the most relevant. [67] showed that most of the students had career aspirations in the medium-to-high category. Students are seriously concerned about their current career choices. Students feel proud and have a positive view of their chosen career. The results of the study also found that male students have higher career aspirations than female students.

A review of the existing literature reveals that there is very limited research on gender-based differentiation in aspiration at the tertiary education level in Bangladesh. Furthermore, previous studies have not adequately examined respondents’ fathers’ education, occupation, and income; students’ perceptions of their academic performance; their aspirations before and after university admission; the different factors affecting aspiration fulfillment; or the obstacles and prospects in realizing those aspirations. The current study aims to fill these research gaps by thoroughly investigating these areas.

The Table 1 shows that the literacy rate was much higher among the fathers of female students than among those of male students. Illiteracy, primary education, and secondary education levels were higher among the fathers of the male students, while higher secondary and above education levels were more common among the fathers of the female students. Educated fathers tend to prioritize their daughters’ education for their future careers and to ensure a financially stable life. Male students can often manage or survive in various ways during their student life, but it is generally more challenging for the female students, especially those from rural or less supportive backgrounds. Without strong family support and awareness, success is quite difficult for the female students. These factors make them more aspirational and motivate them to achieve their goals.

Table 1.Fathers’ education of the respondents.

The data indicate that fathers’ occupations were generally better among the female students than among the male students, reflecting differences in academic background and opportunities. Not only primary but also secondary occupations were more common among the fathers of the female students. They appear to provide the necessary financial support to their daughters, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2.Fathers’ occupations of the respondents.

From the Table 3, it is evident that fathers’ monthly income was generally lower among the male students compared to the female students, largely due to differences in fathers’ education and occupation. The average monthly income of fathers of the male students was 10921.05 taka, while that of fathers of the female students was 22539.68 taka. Most of the respondents came from rural areas, where fathers have fewer opportunities than those in urban areas.

Table 3.Fathers’ monthly income of the respondents.

After admission to the Department of Sociology at the university of Rajshahi, most of the female students reported feeling happy, and most of the male students expressed good, as demonstrated in Table 4. Those who rated it ‘very good’ mentioned reasons such as its relevance to real life; its ability to broaden perspectives; help in understanding people, society, and global issues, and recognition of similarities across different stages of life. Those who rated it ‘good’ cited benefits such as contributing to society and culture, gaining admission to a preferred subject, learning diverse topics, finding it unexpectedly interesting, enriching insights, and good study quality.

Table 4.Opinions of the respondents on admission to the department of sociology.

Respondents who made no comments mentioned reasons including session jams, poor marks despite good preparation, lack of prior knowledge about the department, departmental frustration, unknown aspects of the study, prior exposure to social studies in higher secondary, obligatory enrollment, or lack of interest. Those who rated it ‘bad’ pointed to delayed exams, irregular classes, time-consuming syllabus completion, session jams, limited job opportunities, poor results, difficulty understanding the subject, slow progress, and lack of interest. Those who rated it ‘very bad’ highlighted session jams.

Table 5 shows that female students were more satisfied with their academic results than male students. However, neither group was highly satisfied with their results at the tertiary level. Those who reported being ‘satisfied’ mentioned achieving expected results and performing according to their understanding in exams. Those who were ‘dissatisfied’ cited lack of interest in studying more, dissatisfaction with script evaluation, failure to secure expected results, missed opportunities for better performance, and results falling below expectations. Those who were ‘very dissatisfied’ noted that the subject matter of sociology is complex and difficult to complete within the allocated exam time.

Table 5.Opinions of the respondents on academic results.

Students’ aspirations depend on multiple factors, including self-esteem, family support, socioeconomic conditions, institutional factors, and peer influence. Before admission, the male students reported 16 different types of aspirations, while female students reported 14 in numbers, as shown in Table 6. Many emphasized their goals due to strong aspirations and interest in their respective fields. The most common aspiration among the male students was simply to gain university admission, whereas among the female students, it was the teaching profession-to learn and share important social values. Teaching is also regarded as a noble profession. Some students could not identify clear aspirations due to indecision.

Table 6.Aspirations of the respondents before admission to the department of sociology.

(Taken multiple answers).

After admission and exposure to results, male students reported 13 types of aspirations, while female students reported 18 in numbers, presented in Table 7. Many expressed greater confidence in achieving their goals. The most common aspiration for both male and female students was government service due to its honor, power, and job security. Most were preparing to achieve their desired careers. Notably, female students appeared more encouraged to pursue diverse aspirations, influenced by their academic performance and self-confidence.

Table 7.Aspirations of the respondents after admission to the department of sociology.

(Taken multiple answers).

A frustrated person is unlikely to succeed in life. It is therefore significant that both male and female students expressed optimism about fulfilling their aspirations, with female students showing higher levels of optimism, as shown in Table 8. Reasons for optimism included family networks and necessary skills, hard work and passion, inspiration from successful people, preparation aligned with goals, moral obligation to succeed, self-confidence, belief that nothing is impossible, regular study, self-improvement efforts, desire for independence, and the view that optimists succeed. Those who were not optimistic cited lack of self-achievement, unsettled goals, insufficient effort, frustration as a barrier to success, delayed examinations, and irregular study habits.

Table 8.Opinions of the respondents on optimism about fulfilling aspirations.

Table 9 shows that most of the families play a significant role in helping respondents fulfill their aspirations. The families of female students play a stronger and more supportive role compared to those of the male students. The educational qualifications and level of awareness among the families of the female students are generally higher than those of the male students.

Table 9.Opinions of the respondents on the role of family in fulfilling aspirations.

Respondents who reported a positive role of family mentioned the following forms of support: financial assistance, inspiration and psychological encouragement, moral and ethical guidance, crucial support during difficult times, encouragement combined with a sense of security, and absence of pressure from the family. Those who gave negative opinions cited reasons such as being separated from family, not yet having selected clear aims, feeling frustrated, and lacking optimism about anything.

The data indicate that most of the respondents expressed a positive attitude toward the role of their educational institution in helping them fulfill their aspirations, as demonstrated in Table 10. This positive perception is stronger among the female students than among the male students. Those who expressed a positive view mentioned the following contributions: opportunities to develop critical thinking, help in building confidence, encouragement and guidance, provision of quality education, opportunities to gain experience through various organizations, exposure to diverse issues, inspiration from many fellow students at the university, encouragement to develop high ambitions, support from good teachers and a well-designed curriculum, development of sound decision-making ability, significant influence of ideal teachers, ability to better understand reality. Those who expressed a negative attitude cited the following: education being too time-consuming, failure to discover any clear aspirations, the institution not helping them pursue what they truly wanted.

Table 10.Opinions of the respondents on the role of institutions in fulfilling aspirations.

The role of friends in helping fulfill aspirations is clearly evident from the respondents’ opinions. Female students expressed this view more frequently than the male students (Table 11). Those who answered ‘yes’ (friends play a positive role) listed the following ways friends help: assistance with studies, psychological support, academic and non-academic support, positive encouragement to study, sharing study-related information, help in understanding course content and job preparation, providing necessary guidance, helping to become a better person, financial support in some cases, information about scholarships. Those who gave a negative response mentioned: having no close friends, only classmates, friends cannot play a role similar to parents, friends do not offer suggestions about aspirations, friends are busy pursuing their own aspirations, friends only engage in gossip with no inspiration, lack of willingness to cooperate, friends are preoccupied with their own issues, some friends make fun of the topic, friends lack specific knowledge about career or aspirations.

Table 11.Opinions of the respondents on the role of friends in fulfilling aspirations.

The majority of the male students identified numerous obstacles, including: financial constraints, pressure from competitive environments, lack of self-confidence, inadequate preparation for competition, idleness and homesickness, excessive use of mobile phones, challenges related to money and opportunities, poor time management, communication difficulties, frustration, lack of cooperation from others, psychological pressure, family expectations regarding money, oversleeping, personal overthinking, departmental issues, time wastage, poor academic results, lack of hard work, attraction to games and cinema, and absence of personal or family property.

In contrast, the majority of the female students listed many barriers, including: physical illness, financial crisis, irregular study habits, national socioeconomic conditions, corruption in the job market, poor time utilization, lack of proper guidance, unsatisfactory results, difficult circumstances and idleness, loss of encouragement, family problems, negative attitudes from peer groups and neighbors, homesickness, difficulty adapting to current circumstances, social barriers, lack of communication and opportunities, lack of self-confidence, time wastage, flawed academic system, departmental crises, poor planning and time management, psychological pressure related to marriage, session jams in the department, and lack of interest in studying for career establishment.

Most of the respondents expressed optimism about fulfilling their aspirations. Those who reported positive prospects mentioned: digital and networking opportunities, diligence and strong desire for knowledge, honesty and confidence, interest in humanitarian work, abundant opportunities in sociology for education and research, spiritual mindset, determination to never give up, continued optimism about improvements in educational quality and skills, ongoing family support, good reading facilities in residential halls, strong preparation for study and jobs, and increasing job opportunities.

On the contrary, most of the female students reported positive views listed: family and teacher support, pursuit of higher education, hard work to achieve goals, access to scholarships, family encouragement, proper use of time, absence of psychological pressure, passion for hard work, opportunities to study or work abroad, trust in Almighty, good study environment, teacher guidance, honesty, numerous opportunities in government and other sectors, effective use of technology, strong determination to succeed, belief that Almighty does not abandon hardworking people, absence of financial problems, building good relationships, and self-reliance in pursuing virtuous goals.