This study is grounded in [6] model of intercultural communication competence, which conceptualizes effective intercultural interaction as a multidimensional construct encompassing affective, cognitive, and behavioral components. The model identifies intercultural sensitivity, awareness, and adroitness as interrelated dimensions that together support competent cross-cultural communication. Among these, intercultural sensitivity is central, as it reflects individuals’ emotional readiness to acknowledge, appreciate, and respond constructively to cultural differences, thereby underpinning the development of cognitive understanding and behavioral skills.

To operationalize the affective dimension, [6] developed the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS), which comprises five dimensions: interaction engagement, respect for cultural differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment, and interaction attentiveness. These dimensions capture key emotional dispositions that shape individuals’ engagement in intercultural encounters. The ISS has demonstrated strong validity and reliability across diverse cultural contexts and is consistently associated with related constructs such as empathy, self-esteem, and intercultural effectiveness ([6]; [9]; [11]). Accordingly, it offers a robust and theoretically grounded approach to assessing the affective component of intercultural competence.

Against the backdrop of increasing cultural diversity on Ghanaian university campuses, this study adopts the ISS framework as a critical lens for understanding how students’ emotional orientations toward cultural difference shape their everyday interactions and communicative experiences. By focusing on the affective dimension, the study highlights the oftenunderexplored role of emotions in facilitating or constraining meaningful intercultural engagement within higher education contexts. Therefore, drawing on this theoretical and empirical background, the present study uses factoranalytic and correlational methods to investigate how cultural value orientations relate to intercultural sensitivity among Ghanaian university students. By identifying key value dimensions and examining their associations with intercultural attitudes and behaviors, the study seeks to clarify how traditional cultural norms intersect with the demands of increasingly multicultural academic environments.

This study utilized a cross-sectional quantitative research design to assess intercultural sensitivity among participants at a single point in time. Data were collected through a structured, self-administered survey, enabling numerical measurement and statistical analysis of participants’ attitudes toward cultural differences. Intercultural sensitivity was measured using the 24-item Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS) developed by [6], a validated instrument designed to capture five key dimensions: interaction engagement, respect for cultural differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment, and interaction attentiveness. Participants rated each item on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), with higher scores indicating greater levels of intercultural sensitivity.

The cross-sectional design allowed for efficient data collection without manipulation of study variables, making it appropriate for describing and quantifying relationships among constructs. In the present study, the ISS demonstrated acceptable internal consistency reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .70, indicating that the scale was sufficiently reliable for assessing intercultural sensitivity within the study sample.

It is important to note that the primary empirical objective was to validate the factor structure of the ISS and examine the relationships among its dimensions. Cultural value orientations provided the overarching theoretical lens guiding conceptualization and interpretation; however, they were not included as statistical predictors in the primary analyses. Accordingly, while cultural value orientations informed the study’s theoretical framing, the methodological focus remained on assessing ISS factors and their interrelations.

Participants were recruited from a public university in Ghana through classroom announcements, departmental notice boards, and the institution’s online learning platforms. Recruitment materials provided a brief overview of the study and invited interested students to contact the lead researcher for additional information. To be eligible, individuals were required to be full-time undergraduate students, Ghanaian citizens or long-term residents, and at least 18 years of age. Only those who met these criteria and expressed interest were enrolled in the study.

Before data collection, all participants were provided with an informed consent form outlining the study’s purpose, procedures, potential risks and benefits, confidentiality protections, and the voluntary nature of participation. Participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty and were encouraged to ask questions before providing written consent. The study protocol, including recruitment procedures, consent materials, and data management practices, was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the lead researcher’s university, with additional approval secured through a formal letter of agreement from the participating institution.

The demographic characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 1. The gender distribution was nearly equal, with males comprising 50.1% and females 49.9% of respondents. The sample was predominantly composed of younger adults, with the largest proportions aged 18 - 20 years (43.1%) and 21 - 23 years (32.4%), and smaller representations across older age groups.

The sample reflected ethnic diversity, although the Ewe (49.6%) and Akan (31.3%) groups constituted the majority, with several other ethnic groups represented in smaller proportions. Academically, most participants were in the early stages of their studies, with freshmen (level 1) (61.6%) and sophomores (level 2) (22.6%) comprising the largest segments. Students were drawn from a range of health-related disciplines, with Public Health representing the largest proportion (53.7%) of the total population.

Table 1.Demographic characteristics of study participants (N = 367).

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted to examine the latent structure of the measurement items and assess construct validity. Sampling adequacy was evaluated using the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure, which yielded a value of .81, exceeding the recommended threshold of .60. Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant, χ² (276) = 1660.31, p < .001, indicating that the correlation matrix was suitable for factor analysis (see Table 2).

Factors were extracted using principal component analysis (PCA), followed by PCA with orthogonal Varimax rotation. This method was selected because the ISS factors were theoretically expected to be distinct and minimally correlated, making an orthogonal solution the most appropriate and interpretable choice. Factor retention was guided by eigenvalues greater than 1.0 and the conceptual coherence of the solution. Items with factor loadings of .50 or higher were retained, whereas items with low communalities or substantial cross-loadings were removed. Although one factor showed modest internal consistency (α = .50), it was retained because factors with few items often yield lower alpha values, and the items demonstrated coherent content and stable loadings; accordingly, interpretations of this factor emphasize its conceptual contribution rather than its precision.

Subsequently, Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were computed to examine the relationships among the dimensions identified in the EFA: intercultural emotional stability, intercultural engagement and enjoyment, intercultural confidence, intercultural awareness and mindfulness, and intercultural sensitivity and responsiveness.

Table 2. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure and bartlett’s test of sphericity.

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) using an orthogonal extraction method with Varimax rotation yielded a five-factor solution (see Table 3). This structure aligns with theoretical perspectives that conceptualize intercultural competence as a multidimensional construct. However, the 17 retained items exhibited notable cross-loadings across factors, suggesting that the original Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS) may not fully capture distinct dimensions within the Ghanaian context. This pattern highlights the potential cultural specificity of the construct and suggests that the ISS may not be fully applicable in this setting.

The extracted factors were interpreted based on the magnitude of their loadings and corresponding internal consistency estimates. Factor 1, intercultural emotional stability, reflected discomfort and negative affect during intercultural interactions (α = .640). Factor 2, intercultural engagement and enjoyment, captured positive involvement and enthusiasm in intercultural encounters (α = .610). Factor 3, intercultural confidence, represented perceived self-efficacy in cross-cultural communication (α = .630). Factor 4, intercultural awareness and mindfulness, emphasized attentiveness and reflective judgment in intercultural exchanges (α = .600). Factor 5, intercultural sensitivity and responsiveness, reflected attunement to subtle intercultural cues and supportive behaviors (α = .500). Although the internal consistency for this factor was relatively low, it was provisionally retained due to its theoretical relevance. Overall, the findings provide partial empirical support for a multidimensional structure of intercultural competence. While the refined 17-item scale demonstrates a coherent and interpretable factor solution, the presence of cross-loadings and modest reliability coefficients indicates the need for further refinement and validation within the Ghanaian context.

Table 3.Exploratory factor analysis of the intercultural sensitivity scale (five-factor solution).

Note: Loadings below .40 are suppressed. IES = Intercultural Emotional Stability; IE&E = Intercultural Engagement and Enjoyment; IC = Intercultural Confidence; IA&M = Intercultural Awareness and Mindfulness; IS&R = Intercultural Sensitivity and Responsiveness. α = Cronbach’s alpha.

Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were computed to examine the relationships among intercultural emotional stability, intercultural engagement and enjoyment, intercultural confidence, intercultural awareness and mindfulness, and intercultural sensitivity and responsiveness. These were constructs derived from the factor structure identified through the exploratory factor analysis conducted in the current study.

As shown in Table 4, the descriptive statistics indicate generally moderate to high levels across the five dimensions of intercultural competence. Intercultural emotional stability has the highest mean (M = 4.12, SD = .66), suggesting that students tend to report relatively strong emotional regulation in intercultural contexts. Regarding Factor 1, although the items in Table 3 are negatively worded (“feel useless”, “get discouraged”, “get upset easily”), the factor loadings indicate that higher scores represent lower endorsement of these statements. In this context, a higher mean (M = 4.12) appropriately reflects stronger emotional regulation, as respondents are reporting that these negative emotional experiences occur infrequently. Because the scale is already oriented in this direction, reversescoring was not required. In contrast, intercultural sensitivity and responsiveness have the lowest mean (M = 3.48, SD = .82), indicating comparatively lower levels of responsiveness to cultural differences.

The correlation results show that most dimensions are positively related, though the strength of these relationships varies. Intercultural engagement and enjoyment dimension is moderately associated with intercultural confidence (r = .34, p < .01), intercultural awareness and mindfulness (r = .30, p < .01), and intercultural sensitivity and responsiveness (r = .31, p < .01).

This suggests that greater enjoyment and participation in intercultural interactions are linked to higher confidence, awareness, and responsiveness.

Intercultural confidence is positively related to emotional stability (r = .26, p < .01) and awareness (r = .35), indicating that students who feel more confident in intercultural settings also tend to have better emotional control and greater attentiveness to cultural differences.

Intercultural awareness and mindfulness dimension is moderately correlated with emotional stability (r = .25, p < .01) and engagement (r = .30, p < .01), suggesting that being attentive to cultural differences is associated with both emotional regulation and active involvement in intercultural interactions.

In contrast, intercultural emotional stability shows a weak and non-significant relationship with intercultural sensitivity and responsiveness (r = .06), indicating that emotional control is largely independent of responsiveness to cultural differences.

Overall, the pattern of correlations suggests that while the dimensions are related, they are not strongly overlapping, reflecting a partially interconnected but distinct structure of intercultural competence.

Table 4.Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the five intercultural dimensions.

Note. N = 366 - 367. Values are Pearson correlation coefficients (two-tailed). p < .01. Variables were derived based on exploratory factor analysis conducted in the current study. With respect to sample size, the slight variation between N = 367 in Table 1 and N = 366 - 367 in Table 4 reflects routine item-level missingness. Descriptive statistics in Table 4 were computed on a per-item basis; therefore, the number of valid responses varies slightly when respondents omit specific items. This approach is standard in reporting descriptive statistics and does not indicate the use of any unreported case-deletion method.

The Exploratory Factor Analysis produced a five-factor structure that partially aligns with [6] model while also refining it. Specifically, the dimensions identified intercultural emotional stability, engagement and enjoyment, confidence, awareness and mindfulness, and responsiveness highlight a more differentiated organization of the construct in this context.

A notable contribution of the results is the emergence of intercultural emotional stability as a distinct factor. This suggests that students’ ability to manage anxiety, discomfort, and uncertainty is a central component of intercultural sensitivity in this setting. This aligns with [12] anxiety-uncertainty management theory (AUM), which positions emotional regulation as essential for effective intercultural communication. At the same time, the moderate internal consistency estimates (α = .50 - .64) indicate that while the factors are meaningful, their expression may be more nuanced and contextually embedded than typically observed in Western validation studies. This likely reflects the interaction between enduring cultural norms and increasing exposure to diverse intercultural experiences within Ghanaian higher education.

The pattern of associations observed among the dimensions of intercultural competence reinforces the view that these components function as an interconnected system rather than as independent traits ([6]). At the same time, the variation in the strength of these relationships suggests that the construct is only partially integrated, with some dimensions more closely aligned than others.

A particularly notable feature of the findings is the central role of engagement and enjoyment within the broader network of intercultural competencies. The consistent links between this dimension and others imply that a positive affective orientation may serve as a catalyst for the development of related competencies, including confidence, awareness, and responsiveness. This supports existing theoretical perspectives that emphasize the importance of emotional engagement in facilitating meaningful intercultural interaction ([6]).

The observed interconnections among confidence, awareness, and engagement further highlight the mutually reinforcing nature of these components. Prior research suggests that individuals who feel more confident in intercultural contexts are more likely to attend to cultural cues and engage constructively with others, thereby enhancing communication effectiveness ([15]). The current findings are consistent with this perspective, pointing to the dynamic interplay between affective and perceptual processes in shaping intercultural competence.

However, the weaker linkage between emotional stability and responsiveness introduces an important nuance. This pattern suggests that internal emotional regulation may not be sufficient to produce outwardly responsive or adaptive behavior in intercultural settings. In other words, the capacity to remain calm or composed does not necessarily translate into empathy, attentiveness, or behavioral flexibility. This distinction underscores the multidimensional nature of intercultural competence and suggests that different components may develop along separate pathways.

Taken together, these findings highlight both the interconnectedness and differentiation of intercultural competence dimensions. They suggest that while certain affective and perceptual elements operate in tandem, others remain comparatively independent, reinforcing the need to conceptualize intercultural competence as a complex and multifaceted construct.

The present findings extend theoretical understandings of intercultural sensitivity in several important ways. First, they reinforce the central role of affective processes, particularly emotional stability and enjoyment, in shaping intercultural engagement, consistent with [6]. However, the results also show that these affective components are differentiated and unevenly related to behavioral responsiveness.

Second, the multidimensional structure and varying strength of relationships among factors support developmental models of intercultural competence, which posit that intercultural abilities evolve across interrelated but distinct domains ([5]; [15]).

Third, the study highlights the importance of examining intercultural sensitivity within underrepresented contexts. The Ghanaian university setting illustrates how intercultural competence develops at the intersection of local cultural traditions and increasing global influences ([7]). In particular, the prominence of emotional stability and engagement suggests that affective readiness may play a unique role in contexts where intercultural exposure is expanding but uneven.

Additionally, variation in engagement, enjoyment, and attentiveness points to the possible influence of cultural value orientations, consistent with [32] framework. Although not directly measured, these patterns suggest that value systems may shape how students experience and enact intercultural sensitivity.

From a practical standpoint, the findings indicate that enhancing intercultural competence in Ghanaian universities requires more than promoting awareness alone. Given the central role of engagement and enjoyment, interventions should aim to strengthen students’ positive emotional orientation toward intercultural interaction.

The distinct role of emotional stability further suggests the need to support students in managing discomfort and uncertainty in culturally unfamiliar situations, as this may influence their willingness to engage ([3]; [9]). At the same time, the lack of association between emotional stability and responsiveness indicates that programs must also explicitly target behavioral skills such as attentiveness and adaptive communication.

Experiential learning approaches, including intercultural group work, dialogue-based activities, and reflective exercises, are particularly effective in fostering both affective engagement and behavioral competence ([7]; [19]). Developing mindfulness and awareness further enhances students’ ability to interpret cultural cues and respond appropriately ([6]; [33]).

Several limitations of this study warrant consideration. First, the use of a single institutional sample limits the generalizability of the findings. Given Ghana’s considerable ethnocultural diversity ([10]; [26]), future research should employ multi-site designs to capture broader contextual variation. Second, the modest reliability coefficients suggest the need for further refinement of the measurement instrument to enhance its cultural relevance ([6]). Third, reliance on principal component analysis constrains the depth of theoretical interpretation; future studies should utilize confirmatory factor analysis to validate the underlying structure ([13]). Finally, subsequent research should more directly examine cultural value orientations and adopt longitudinal or mixed-method approaches to better understand the development of intercultural sensitivity over time ([7]; [32]).