The Sudano-savannah ecosystem is a large savannah eco-region in the northern part of Cameroon composed of diverse vegetation; a mosaic of densely wooded areas, steppes, open fields and agrarian ecosystem ([31]; [9]). The ecoregion is a high priority landscape for wildlife conservation and supports populations of endangered species such as the elephant (Loxodonta africana), lion (Panthera leo), giraffe (Giraffacamelopardalisantiquorum), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), roan antelope (Hippotragus equinu), eastern giant eland (Tragelaphus derbianusgigas), the Western kob (Kobus kob), and korrigum (Damaliscus korrigum) ([7]; [13]). In this area, traditional farming and transhumance pastoralism are important activities ([9]) and play an important role in the economy of the country, contributing to its GDP ([21]). Though these activities have fostered social ties and strong economic complementarities between many communities, they have also generated conflicts between humans and wildlife around protected areas ([24]). The activities have rendered the region increasingly susceptible to drought and desertification, which significantly threaten wildlife species such as elephants, leopards, lions and other large and medium-sized mammals within the ecosystem. Studies have recorded decreased wildlife populations in areas of high conservation value as well as near extermination in some cases ([11]; [28]; [29]).

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) occurs when humans and wildlife compete for the same resources resulting to a negative outcome to both parties ([20]; [16]). Biodiversity loss and significant decline in human well-being, most often for people living near protected areas, have been widely reported ([17]; [32]). The continued growth of human populations has intensified Human-wildlife conflict in most African countries ([14]). Local populations living around protected areas often experience livestock losses to carnivore predation, leading to human-carnivore conflict (HCC) ([12]). Human-carnivore conflict may result to significant economic losses and can increase intolerance or negative attitudes leading to retaliation against predators ([1]; [23]; [15]; [34]).

In sub-Saharan Africa, there is continuous encroachment of humans on protected areas causing increase proximity and frequent interactions between carnivores and humans. Traditional livestock keeping, mainly extensive and transhumance play a prominent role in the economy of local communities around the Bouba-Ndjidda National Park (BNNP) ([9]). In semi-arid tropical areas, water and forage shortages in the dry season cause pastoralists to move their livestock to areas with water or key resources ([5]) including protected areas. In addition, overexploitation of rangelands and continued expansion of livestock herds have been linked to habitat degradation, human-carnivore conflict due to livestock depredation and attacks on humans by carnivores ([19]).

In Cameroon, large carnivores such as lions (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus), and spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta), are touristic attractions and play important roles in traditions, myths, and religion of local communities. However, these emblematic species are often responsible for livestock predation and attacks on humans ([10]; [33]). Preventing and mitigating these conflicts is essential for protected areas and wildlife management. Local communities living around the Bouba Ndjidda National Park have often complained about damages to their livelihood (livestock) caused by HCC. Predation of livestock by carnivores has significant consequences to food security and well-being of local communities. A good understanding and management of human-carnivore conflict in protected areas can enhance the development of strategies and management practices for conserving carnivores and safeguarding human livelihoods. Though few studies have assessed the damage caused by wildlife around protected areas in Cameroon ([36]; [2]; [34]; [32]), there is lack of information on human-carnivore conflict and it influence on local community perception of conservation and the long-term future of wildlife. In this context, this study was carried out to assess human-carnivore conflict by exploring the status quo of livestock depredation, identifying drivers, consequences and mitigation measures in the Bouba Ndjidda National Park in Cameroon.

Two types of human-carnivore conflicts were identified in the conservation landscape of Bouba Ndjidda National Park including livestock depredation followed by human death and injury. This result shares similarities with those found on the periphery of the W and Arly National Parks in Burkina Faso where losses of domestic animals and injuries to humans were frequent ([25]). On the other hand, they differ from findings in Waza National in Cameroon where predation on livestock was the only form of HCC reported ([2]; [34]; [32]). Attacks on humans, even though low, compared to the damage on livestock by carnivore predation; constitute the most serious manifestation of HCC in local communities ([4]). According to these authors, the occurrence of attacks on humans worldwide is dependent on both ecological and social factors. Records of human deaths caused by carnivores are common in East and Southern African countries notably Tanzania ([26]). [2] speculated the possibility of this form of HCC occurring in West and Central Africa due to the closeness of communities to protected areas hosting carnivores.

The study revealed that increase in wildlife population as perceived by focus groups was a major cause of HCC followed by poor livestock husbandry. Conservation efforts in the BNNP landscape have led to increase in wildlife populations. A lioness was identified on Camera trap in the Bouba Ndjidda-Sena Oura trans-boundary landscape, which was previously deemed to have no lions for over 20 years ([37]). These results are in line with those reported in the W and Arly National Park ([25]) where 73% of respondents stated that predation was linked to increase in the number of carnivores and had observed them more regularly compared to previous years. In addition, [10] stated that the increase in population pressure, practice of cattle and sheep farming near protected areas and interaction between communities and protected areas were the primary causes of human-carnivore conflicts. The breeding of these animals in this area constitutes one of the most important income-generating activities for the populations.

The study shows that three species of carnivores were responsible for predation of domestic animals. The spotted hyena was the main predator followed by lion and civet. These results agree with those of [36] in Benoue National Park, where lions and hyenas were among the species most often cited by herders. However, smaller carnivores, such as civets, were responsible for attacks on livestock in this study. The same is true of the W and Arly National Park ([25]) where the species responsible for predation were the hyena (51.6%) and lion (45.4%). However, in Tsavo National Park in Kenya, the lion (85.9%) was the predominant predator followed by hyena (9.1%), and cheetah (4.9%) ([27]). Similarly, in Waza National Park the lion was the main predator responsible for livestock attacks followed by Jackals and hyenas ([32]).

Several consequences of HCC were recorded in this study with economic loss being the most important. The findings agree with [30], who stated that the main consequence of human-wildlife conflicts was economic loss. Livestock represent food source, savings, financial security and cultural inheritance to local communities. Other studies had demonstrated that losing livestock to carnivore predation lead to reduced livelihood and increase poverty ([6]; [32]). The same was true in ZIC 19 in Tcheboa, where conflicts had serious economic and food consequences ([8]). Losses related to livestock predation in this study estimated at 5,496,000 FCFA are significant to communities in this landscape. In Waza National Park, economic loss of livestock induced hardship to local communities ([2]; [34], 2026) leading to retaliatory killing of lions. Similarly, in Tsavo National Park in Kenya, the economic loss due to predation reported by [27] was $ 8,749 US dollars per year. Despite losses incurred from carnivore predation on livestock, majority of communities in the BNNP landscape had a positive perception of wildlife. This might be because of the benefits they have due to the presence of wildlife, such as slaughter taxes from legal hunting in the hunting zones, and tourism which contribute to the development of their localities.

Local communities living in the periphery of the BNNP landscape applied some measures to protect their livestock from predation and to safeguard their livelihood. The most practiced being the use of noise, using objects like drums and pot lids to chase away predators. This may temporarily work but could be dangerous depending on the flight distance of the predators. This often led to injuries on humans and severe damage on livestock around protected areas such as observed around Waza National Park (Djafsia Kagalang Pers. Comm.). In the Mpem and Djim landscape, lions killed more livestock than they could consume when chased off their kills ([18]). Barbed wire fences and improved guarding of livestock herds could be effective options to mitigate livestock depredation. The FAO Toolbox for human wildlife conflict, which has had positive effects in Gabon, was not applied in this landscape and the main reason was the lack of knowledge of the existence of this tool.

We recognize some limitations of this study, including potential recall bias, consensus effects within focus group discussions, the use of purposive sampling, and the possibility of participant misidentification of carnivore species. One of the major challenges encountered during this study was the prevailing insecurity within the landscape, including threats posed by terrorist activities and kidnappings. Although the researchers initially planned to conduct household interviews, this component of the study could not be implemented due to security concerns and the associated risks. Given the security challenges in the study area, future research should explore alternative and adaptive data collection methods, including collaborations with local community representatives, trained local enumerators, conservation staff, and community-based monitoring networks.

Human-carnivore conflicts are difficult issues that impact both conservation and rural communities living around protected areas. Bouba Ndjidda National Park in the North Region of Cameroon is also facing this phenomenon. Two types of human-carnivore conflicts including livestock depredation and, injury and death of humans were observed in this study. Increasing wildlife populations especially carnivores and poor livestock husbandry practices were the major cause of the conflicts. Three carnivore species are responsible for livestock predation namely hyenas, lions, and civets. The livestock species killed in the study were cattle, goat, sheep and donkey. Overall, 124 animals were killed valued at 5,496,000 FCFA ($ 9, 791.68 US Dollars). Despite the losses and frustrations caused by carnivores, 62% of communities had a positive perception of wildlife. Even though there was no clear strategy for managing human-carnivore conflicts in the area, to reduce the negative effects of HCC, the conservation service and their partners are recommended to continue raising awareness, encouraging improved husbandry practices such as enclosing livestock at night.

The authors would like to thank the Minister of Forestry and Wildlife, the Bouba-Ndjidda National Park team, and their partners especially BEDD for providing logistical support for this work. We acknowledge the collaboration of the communities that participated in this survey.