The shift to internal combustion engine (ICE) cars to electric mobility is now an important route to lowering tailpipe emissions and impacting urban air quality and climate action. E-mobility, however, is not per se sustainable because it uses electric power. The EV relies on lithium-ion batteries, electric motors, chargers, controllers, inverters, sensors, wiring systems, and power electronics, as well as lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, graphite, copper, and rare earth elements. With the increasing number of electric vehicles (EVs) in the world, the demand for these materials and the volume of end-of-life (EOL) components and materials will grow, and engineers must consider how their innovations can facilitate the continued use of e-mobility products, components, and materials for as long as possible [1].

Engineering advancements in e-mobility remanufacturing and re-engineering are gaining significance on a global scale, with the increasing number of electric vehicles and the pressure on critical materials. Countries such as China, the European Union, Japan, South Korea, and the United States that have well-established markets for electric vehicles (EVs) are funding battery diagnostics, digital battery passports, robotic disassembly, second-life battery systems, advanced recycling and material recovery technologies [1]. The innovations are designed to help EVs reach their full life cycle, cut reliance on raw materials from the ground, and enable battery traceability and circular supply chains [2].

On the regional level, Africa is slowly becoming a key region for e-mobility innovation, particularly with regard to electric motorcycles, electric buses, three-wheelers, battery swapping, and charging infrastructure. However, there are still many African countries that are developing the technical standards, repair capability, recycling systems, and institutions to handle end-of-life EV batteries and components [2]. Remanufacturing and re-engineering developments in engineering can prevent future battery waste issues in the region and generate jobs for the area, cut down on the reliance on battery imports, and boost regional resource efficiency.

This paper aims to situate itself in the discussion of the circular economy and the notion of resource efficiency. In a linear system, electric vehicle parts are made, used, and thrown away. The same components are designed to be durable, diagnosed after use, repaired, if possible, remanufactured if technically possible, repurposed for a second-life application, or recycled only if component reuse is no longer safe or economic, in a circular system. This method is especially relevant for batteries due to the high value of the materials, the safety risks, and the environmental issues associated with batteries, but also for motors, chargers, controllers, and power electronics, where recoverable materials and recoverable technical value are lost if the product is disposed of prematurely [3].

The concept of e-mobility as used in this study covers electrically powered transport systems and various supporting infrastructure, such as electric vehicles, batteries, chargers, and charger control systems. Remanufacturing involves inspection, disassembly, repair, replacement, reassembly, and/or testing of used EV components to bring them to a safe and reliable working condition [3]. Re-engineering is changing and redesigning components of an existing system to enhance their function, to make them serve a new purpose, or to make them useful for a longer period. Circular economy is an economic system based on the reuse, repair, refurbishment, remanufacturing, recycling, and recovery of products, components, and materials. Resource efficiency is the use of materials, energy, and technology to minimize waste and maximize value [3].

Battery re-engineering includes repairing, reprovisioning, or redesigning used batteries to be reused, for example, in second-life applications [4]. Design for disassembly is a process of designing products that can be easily disassembled for repair, reuse, remanufacturing, or recycling. Material recovery is the process of obtaining valuable materials like lithium, cobalt, nickel, copper, aluminum, and rare earth elements from recovered materials to ensure the materials can be used again in the manufacturing process. These are key concepts because they underpin circular e-mobility systems and minimize the premature disposal of valuable EV parts [5].

The e-mobility market in Kenya is growing with the introduction of electric motorcycles, electric buses, battery swapping services, clean transport policy, and charging infrastructure [5]. These evolutions open the opportunity for local assembly, technical training, repair, remanufacturing, second-life battery storage, and recovery of materials. Concurrently, they pose inquiries into standards, safety, traceability, producer responsibility, technician certification, and institutional readiness. If not handled through a circular approach, Kenya may experience unsafe informal repair services, uncontrolled battery waste, loss of valuable materials, and reliance on imported spare parts.

Resource efficiency in the e-mobility remanufacturing is the dependent variable of this study. Resource efficiency is about minimizing raw material use, waste outputs, increasing the product lifespan, reducing energy and cost pressures, recovering useful materials, and decreasing reliance on imported components. Independent variables include remanufacturing technology innovation, battery re-engineering practices, material recovery and recycling processes, and design for disassembly and reuse. The study aims, research questions, literature review, findings, conclusion, and recommendations [6] are based on these variables.

The general research question is: How do engineering innovations in e-mobility remanufacturing and re-engineering influence the circular economy and resource efficiency?

The specific research questions are:

1) How does remanufacturing technology innovation affect resource efficiency in e-mobility remanufacturing?

2) How do battery re-engineering practices influence resource efficiency in e-mobility remanufacturing?

3) What is the effect of material recovery and recycling processes on resource efficiency in e-mobility remanufacturing?

4) How does design for disassembly and reuse influence resource efficiency in e-mobility remanufacturing?

The literature on circular e-mobility is based on circular economy theory, product life extension theory, and extended producer responsibility theory. The theory of circular economy is a philosophy that products and materials should be kept in use for the longest time possible with zero waste. The principles of product life extension theory focus on approaches to extending the value of products by repair, reuse, refurbishment, remanufacturing, and upgrading. The EPR theory suggests that the duty to manage products after they have been used by consumers should be borne by the producers, importers, and suppliers, and this should be done by take-back, reuse, recycling, and safe disposal. These theories are well applicable to e-mobility as the electric vehicle systems, being of high value, need technical, environmental, and regulatory management throughout their life cycle.

The technology innovation of remanufacturing is a significant topic in the literature. Remanufacturing is not just a regular repair, as it is a systematic procedure that includes disassembling the product, inspecting, carrying out tests, replacing defective components, reassembling, and ensuring quality. For e-mobility, this can involve battery pack diagnostics, cell sorting, module replacement, electric motor refurbishment, controller testing, charger repair, reconditioning of the inverter, and digital traceability. [7] demonstrate the need for structured processes up to the cell level for the remanufacturing of EVs, such as safe disassembly, cell testing, sorting, and repurposing. Research also suggests that remanufacturing can help to decrease the demand for new spare parts; however, it is important to note that compatibility and technological developments can affect the economic potential of remanufacturing. This literature suggests a positive outlook on the potential of remanufacturing technology innovation to enhance the efficiency of resource utilization and to decrease the rate of early disposal.

Also, battery re-engineering processes play a key role in circular e-mobility. One of the most costly and resource-intensive parts of EVs is the batteries. They can be reused depending on the state of health (SOH) test, state of charge (SOC) measurement, cycle history, thermal behavior, internal resistance, safety status, and remaining useful life (RUL). While second-life batteries offer promise, as outlined by [7], they are vulnerable to technical and economic uncertainties due to their performance, ageing, safety, and cost. In order to achieve circular business models for batteries, it is essential to have reliable information, unambiguous responsibilities, and market confidence. Battery re-engineering can therefore contribute to resource efficiency by repurposing the battery once it is no longer viable for vehicles to stationary battery storage, solar backup, mini-grids, charging stations, and public facility energy resilience.

The last technical step in circular e-mobility is the material recovery and recycling process. When batteries, motors, chargers, and power electronics can no longer be safely repaired, reused, or remanufactured, recycling is required. [7] demonstrates that the EV adoption will need battery materials in greater quantities, and [8] indicates that critical materials are of strategic importance for the EV battery supply chains. Recycling of lithium, cobalt, nickel, copper, aluminum, steel, plastics, and rare earth elements decreases environmental pressure and increases resilience of supply chains. Recycling should be considered, but not as a first option, since it may recover the value of the material after wasting the value of the product. A good circular economy focuses on creating value through maintenance, repair, remanufacturing, and second-life use of materials before material recovery.

Another variable of interest in the literature is the design for disassembly and reuse. More complex products are a greater cost and risk when remanufacturing. EV batteries and power electronics can be complex and include adhesives, welded connections, proprietary designs, unmarked cells or modules, and difficult access to cells and modules. Studies conclude that battery disassembly is complex, dangerous, and product design dependent [8]. Design for disassembly increases resource efficiency by making parts more modular, easier to access, standardized, labeled, and safer to handle. It also provides benefits for automation, technician safety, quicker diagnosis, material separation, and better recycling results.

These concepts can be implemented early in the Kenyan policy context. The National Electric Mobility Policy (NEM) encourages cleaner and more efficient transport, and the Sustainable Waste Management Act, 2022, introduces waste hierarchy principles, including reduction, reuse, repair, refurbishment, recycling, recovery, and safe disposal. Additionally, the Sustainable Waste Management (Extended Producer Responsibility) Regulations 2024 mandate producers’ involvement in post-consumer product management. The frameworks can help to enable circular e-mobility when translated to EV battery, charger, motor, controller, battery passport, technician certification, second-life use, and material recovery standards.

From the literature, it is inferred that the four independent variables are interdependent. Innovation for remanufacturing is dependent on diagnostic data and designs that can be repaired. Traceability, standards, and confidence in the second-life market are required for battery re-engineering. Safe collection, safe sorting, and recycling infrastructure are needed for material recovery. All circular activities are easier and less expensive when designs are based on disassembly. It is then that these engineering and policy systems can achieve the dependent variable resource efficiency in e-mobility remanufacturing.

This study was qualitative research that was based on secondary data and a systematic review of literature. The methodology was suitable as it was aimed to combine academic, policy, and institutional knowledge in the field of e-mobility remanufacturing, battery re-engineering, material recovery, design for disassembly, circular economy, and resource efficiency. Peer-reviewed journal articles, reports from international agencies, government policy documents, legal documents, and institutional publications were the sources selected through Figure 1.

Figure 1. Flow diagram.

The literature identified, screened, assessed, and included in the study followed the PRISMA model. The review is structured based on the research questions. To address the first research question, the literature on remanufacturing technology innovation was used. Literature on battery re-engineering practices was used to answer the second research question. Literature on material recovery and recycling processes was used to answer the third research question. The fourth research question was addressed by using literature on design for disassembly and reuse. Resource efficiency was used as the dependent variable in all four areas.

Table 1. Literature review matrix.

All the data for the study came from secondary sources, including peer-reviewed journal articles, government policy documents, international agency reports, standards publications, and institutional reports, as shown in Table 1. Relevant published literature in the International Energy Agency, International Renewable Energy Agency, the United Nations Environment Program, Government of Kenya, Ministry of Roads and Transport, National Environment Management Authority and academic databases was key sources. Literature review of the study on EV batteries, Electric motors, Chargers, power electronics, battery passport, extended producer responsibility, circular economy, and resource efficiency was also conducted.

Figure 2. Literature review map.

Thematic analysis and qualitative content analysis were the methods used to analyze the data (Figure 2). A key coding methodology was adopted to select the documents based on specific areas of engineering innovation, battery diagnostics, repair and refurbishment, second-life battery applications, recycling and material recovery, policy frameworks, institutional readiness, and resource efficiency. The analysis has highlighted lessons learned, gaps, and opportunities from international practices and experiences with regional and Kenyan experiences.

The findings are presented as synthesized evidence from the reviewed literature and organized according to the four study variables: remanufacturing technology innovation, battery re-engineering practices, material recovery and recycling processes, and design for disassembly and reuse. Kenya-specific issues are presented separately as policy implications rather than direct literature findings.

The study finds that innovations in the engineering process of e-mobility remanufacturing/re-engineering are key to the realization of the circular economy and resource efficiency. Whilst the introduction of EVs helps reduce emissions, their sustainability is dependent on the design, use, repair, remanufacture, repurpose and recycling of the batteries, motors, chargers, controllers, inverters and other components. The end-of-life management risks associated with a clean transport transition are passed to the environment from the fuel emissions, to the battery waste, unsafe repair, and material loss.

According to the literature reviewed, remanufacturing technology innovation can create benefits for resource efficiency, prolong the lifespan of parts and products, and conserve the value of embedded resources. Advanced diagnostics, controlled disassembly, testing, component grading, repair, and reassembly, and quality assurance enable EV components to be productive for longer [16]. The high cost, high material value, and high safety risk of batteries are also key drivers of battery re-engineering practices in the context of circular e-mobility. The battery testing and grading, replacement of modules, and second-life use can help minimize premature disposal and contribute to energy resilience.

The research also finds that material recovery and recycling are required for parts that cannot be safely reused or remanufactured. These processes minimize losses of critical minerals and promote responsible end-of-life management. But recycling should be done in addition to repair and remanufacturing and “second-life use,” as remanufacturing can maintain more value of a product than recycling. Another key to resource efficiency is the design for disassembly and reuse that influences the feasibility, safety, and cost of repair, remanufacture, and recycling. Products that aren’t designed to be repairable result in increased costs, safety issues, and poor circular economy results.

While the majority of the literature reviewed is of a global and international nature, it has significant implications for the burgeoning e-mobility sector in Kenya. The development of electric motorcycles, electric buses, battery swapping systems, and charging infrastructure in Kenya also requires careful planning to address issues of reusing, repairing, remanufacturing, second-life applications, and recycling of components. The reviewed evidence suggests that Kenya should not see e-mobility as just a vehicle adoption problem, but rather implement systems to manage EV components across their life cycle.

Evidence also has implications for public procurement and regulation. In Kenya, the government institutions and public fleets have an influence on the market behavior, in which case procurement criteria can be used to promote reusable, traceable, and remanufacturable EV components. This would cover reports on battery health, repair manuals, availability of spare parts, take-back systems, and end-of-life management plans. These measures would help minimize the danger of importing EV systems that can’t be safely repaired, remanufactured, and recycled.

The study overall shows that Kenya has an early opportunity to establish circular e-mobility systems. National standards, technical training can play a role, battery passports, producer responsibility, circular procurement, recycling partnerships, and pilot remanufacturing centers can help ensure that e-mobility helps to achieve the goal of clean transport, local skills, green jobs, resource conservation, and less reliance on imported spare parts. Such systems, when established early, can assist Kenya to curb informal battery repair practices, manage battery waste, improve the value of waste for recovery, and create local capacity for circular e-mobility.

First, there is a need to establish Kenya’s national e-mobility remanufacturing standard. Standards should include: Battery diagnostics, Motor refurbishment, Charger and Inverter testing, Controller reuse, Component grading, Battery safety certification, Battery warranties, and quality assurance. The first objective would be supported by clear standards that would enhance remanufacturing technology innovation’s contribution to resource efficiency.

Secondly, Kenya should have battery re-engineering and second-life batteries guidelines. These should outline guidelines for testing, grading, repair, repurposing, installation, monitoring, insurance, and recycling of used EV batteries. Public buildings, schools, hospitals, charging stations, mini-grids, solar backup systems, and emergency power systems are just a few priorities for second-life applications. This would facilitate safe reuse of batteries and prolong battery life.

Thirdly, a national battery passport and traceability system is to be implemented. Origin, chemistry, capacity, manufacturer, ownership history, repair history, state of health, second-life use, and end-of-life status should be recorded in the system. Traceability would facilitate battery re-engineering, producer responsibility, market confidence, and safe material recovery.

Fourth, material recovery and recycling facilities should be expanded. Kenya should incentivize certified EV battery collection centers, safe battery storage facilities, sorting processes, recycling programs, and environmental regulations for EV batteries, motors, chargers, and power electronics. Safe informal dismantling must be avoided in favor of recycling to recover lithium, cobalt, nickel, copper, aluminum, and steel, as well as other valuable materials.

Fifth, public procurement, standards, and import requirements must incorporate the design for disassembly and reuse. EV suppliers must offer “modular” and “repairable” products, spare parts, repair manuals, diagnostic access, labels, take-back plans, and end-of-life management information. Government institutions should not purchase e-mobility systems for which there is no safe, reparable, remanufacturable, or recyclable alternative.

Sixth, certified training should be created for EV remanufacturing technicians. High voltage safety, training on the battery chemistry, battery management systems, diagnostics, thermal management, fire safety, motor repair, battery charger and inverter testing, safe disassembly, and occupational safety and environmental handling should be taught. Certification would help to eliminate unsafe, informal repairs and give confidence to remanufactured parts.

Seventh, pilot remanufacturing and battery testing centers should be set up by government institutions. The centers may be established by technical training institutes, universities, transport entities, standards organizations, or public fleet service centers. They would test, train, certify, research, and demonstrate circular e-mobility practices in advance of scaling nationally.

Eighth, there needs to be a strengthening of the extended producer responsibility for EV batteries and e-mobility components. Producers, importers, assemblers, and suppliers must be made responsible for take-back, repair, remanufacture, recycling, and safe disposal systems. This would help to distribute the responsibility of maintaining a circular economy throughout the e-mobility value chain.

Last, public-private partnerships should be encouraged for e-mobility resource recovery and remanufacturing. By building partnerships between government agencies, EV companies, battery manufacturers, recyclers, universities, technical institutions, development partners, and county governments, financing, technology, and skills can be brought together for circular e-mobility. These partnerships can contribute to the development of greater e-mobility innovation, employment, and long-term resource efficiency in Kenya.

Limitations of the study included a secondary analysis of the literature, with data limited to peer-reviewed journal articles, institutional reports, policy documents, and other published literature. While the study gained insightful global, regional, and Kenyan perspectives on e-mobility remanufacturing, the circular economy, and resource efficiency, it did not produce original empirical data. Therefore, only the quality, extent, and availability of literature were employed in the results.

Furthermore, the study was limited by the small amount of evidence available for the e-mobility remanufacturing, battery re-engineering, second-life battery application, and end-of-life EV component management in Kenya. Much of the available literature was of a global and international nature, particularly from areas where the EV market is more mature. Based on the international evidence and the trajectory Kenya’s policy on e-mobility is taking, some Kenya-specific implications were drawn.

I sincerely thank the Ministry of Roads and Transport (Mechanical and Transport Department) for contributing to the successful completion of the study, especially Eng. Boniface Muli and Eng. Geoffrey Ndichu. I am also deeply grateful to my family for their unwavering support, encouragement, and understanding throughout this journey. Special appreciation goes to Dr. Ibrahim Tirimba Ondabu for his invaluable guidance and mentorship. Finally, I acknowledge everyone whose direct or indirect support made this work possible.