Our research was done in two phases: first, in a major Canadian university and second, in elementary, middle and high schools. Participants in phase 1 were recruited from two different populations. The first group were students in the Kindergarten and Elementary School Education program in a major Canadian University (n = 23) (designated as Generalists Teachers) registered in the course Music Curriculum and Instruction and doing their last field experience immediately after the end of the semester. The second group of participants were students in the Music Education Program of the same University (n = 13) (designated as Music Specialists) registered in the course Music Methods II and doing their final field experience immediately after the end of the semester. All participants signed a consent form before entering the research process.

The participants from the first phase of the study were invited to be part of the second phase during their field experience. Three music specialists chose to participate and obtained agreement from the school they were teaching in. Children were invited to participate, and parental permission was obtained. The participants were as follows:

1) Elementary School in a suburban area—One female music specialist student teacher and a class of grade 3 (n = 20) involved in a general music program, receiving a one-hour lesson weekly, and having traditional classroom percussions instruments and xylophones available.

2) Middle School in a suburban area—One male music specialist student teacher and a class of grade 9 (n = 20) involved in a wind and percussion ensemble program, receiving a 75-minute lesson weekly, and having access to music instruments (wood, brass and percussion).

3) High School in an urban area—One female music specialist student teacher and a group of grade 11 students (n = 10) with little previously music knowledge, involved in an introductory general keyboard music program, and receiving a 75-minute lesson weekly. For the purpose of the study, they were given access to a variety of small percussion instruments, ukuleles and sound objects.

All participants, whether they were student teachers or children/teenagers, were exposed to the same music lesson. In class activities included: listening to surrounding sounds followed by conversation and creative notation of those sounds (ear cleaning activity); sound exploration with different types of papers and collective creation and notation of a soundscape; listening to Shafer’s Once on a Windy Night and discussion about the work and its notation. In groups of 4 to 5, students then composed their own soundscape with classroom instruments and objects and created a visual representation using a large sheet of paper, color pencils, pastels, crayons, colored papers and glue. Creations were performed to classmates and visual representations were explained. Then, students made comments on their own creation process. Finally, the three student teachers replicated the music lesson in an authentic classroom situation as they were doing their practicum.

Several types of data were collected: videotapes of the lessons, videotapes of the performance of the musical compositions, visual representations of the compositions, and recordings of explanations given by the students about their musical compositions and visual representations. In this article, we are focusing on the musical compositions and their visual representations.

The musical and visual soundscapes were processed through content analysis. The three-step process, as described by [27] was used: data immersion, reduction, and interpretation. Immersion involves an engagement with the data to gain a sense of it before organizing it. Reduction implies breaking the data into themes and rearranging it into categories. Finally, interpretation allows us to generate conclusions, to bring meaning to the results and to interpret them through the chosen theoretical framework. If content analysis is most often used with textual data, it is now accepted as a technique that can be effective with visually and audio-based data ([66]).

The first step was therefore an immersion in the data in which the performances of soundscapes were experienced while looking at the visual representations. Second, even though Murray Shaffer’s vision serves as the basis of our framework, his publications do not include a detailed co-analysis of sound and visual data of creative products. Therefore, we performed a search in the published literature to determine and define the musical and visual components used in arts education ([6]; [21]). From this search, a list of the major components in music and visual arts was generated as a framework for the qualitative analysis of the creative products of our participants.

The videos of each soundscape and their visual representation were then individually coded using N’vivo R1. The first step of the coding process involved memoing (taking notes, sketching key words and concepts) from the immersion in the sound and visual data ([12]). For the second step, the identification of codes, we researched the visual art and musical theory dictionaries to identify precise concepts from both fields that connected to the preliminary coding. New coding categories were then generated. At this step, the data (both video and pictorial) from all participants was coded with the new codes. During this phase of coding, additional categories emerged. To ensure coding trustworthiness, both authors independently coded approximately 20% of the data. Throughout the coding process, the two authors met regularly to discuss the categories and come to an agreement on the specific words and concepts to use in the analysis. Disagreements were resolved through discussion and by consulting the published literature defining the musical and visual components ([6]; [21]). Once the final codes were set, all the data was reanalyzed by one of the authors one last time to make sure that all new codes were included in the analysis.

Once the coding was completed, a frequency count of the codes’ occurrences was performed ([12]) and compared between the different groups of participants. The data from the soundscapes and the visual products was finally triangulated to identify existing relationships between the two types of products.

In Table 1, we observe that some concepts such as tone, rhythm and sound texture are the ones most often used by all groups. Music Specialists included most often the concepts of beat/tempo, rhythm, tone and sound texture in their musical products, while students in Grade 11 also included dynamics, which were less present in Specialists’ compositions. Generalists, on the other hand, mostly used dynamics, tone and sound texture but, less rhythm and beat/tempo. It is interesting to observe that Generalists and Grade 9 groups are the only ones who used some sort of structural elements in their products, while Grade 3 students used fewer dynamics than other groups. Finally, pitch was barely used in Grade 3, Grade 11 and by Generalists. We saw from the video analysis that those groups used fewer melodic instruments, they mostly used percussion instruments, which explains this difference.

Table 1. Characteristics of the musical products.

The following analysis presents the different parameters in a more detailed way. First, in regard to the use of Dynamics (Table 2), we observe that Grade 3 musicers barely used any form of dynamics, except for one group that used a semblance of crescendo - decrescendo. Ninth graders mostly used contrasting dynamics (soft and loud) and some gradual variations (crescendo and decrescendo). Among Grade 11, only one group used dynamics. Generalist musicers used the most diverse palette of dynamics, the vast majority used crescendos (86%) and sudden changes (71%) and two thirds of the Music Specialist groups used dynamics in different ways.

Table 2. Use of dynamics in musical products.

In Table 3, we take a closer look at the presence of clear melodic patterns (melody), but also at the use of higher and lower pitches. Only one Grade 3 group used some elements of pitch and a small distinctive melody². Similarly, Grade 11 musicers and Generalist groups used little elements of pitch and melody. Specialist musicers are the ones that used the most of it in general, while Grade 9 groups offer variations between high and low pitches.

Table 3. Use of pitch and melody in musical products.

As presented in Table 4, we observe that most musicers used sound effects, specifically percussive ones. In addition, guttural and mouth noises, such as “clicking the tongue”, were used by some groups. Surprisingly, the spoken or singing voice was the element less often used by most of the musicers.

As shown in Table 5, two thirds of the groups (67%) used distinguishable rhythmical³ patterns in their musical products, while a similar number (67%) of groups used arhythmical⁴ elements. However, it is noteworthy to mention that music specialists all used arhythmical elements in their products. Rhythmic repetitions were also used quite often (92%), by Grade 9, Grade 11 and Music Specialists. Finally, the use of duration, distinctively shorter and longer sounds, is present respectively in 42% and 54% of the sound products.

Table 4. Use of tone and sound effects in musical products.

Table 5. Use of rhythm in musical products.

Table 6 presents data about sound texture and musical structure. We decided to present sound texture and musical structure together because some musical products seem to be structured according to the musical entries (i.e. when a musicer starts or stops playing). In all groups, we observe that some form of sound texture in the musical products can be heard. In most of the groups (88%), all musicers played together at the same time, at some point during the soundscape. In some cases, we observed a true synchronised playing, following a common beat. This situation was most often observed in Grade 9 (40%). Different kinds of interactions in the playing were observed. Some groups begun their composition with alternating entries (one after the other) (60%). This was more often present in older and more experienced musicers (Grade 9, Generalists and Music Specialists). A different interaction, musicers alternating the playing throughout the whole composition (50%), was identified in Grade 3 musicers. Finally, some specific structure, or musical form, is present in most products of Grade 9 (60%) and Generalist (71%) musicers.

Table 6. Use of sound texture and structure in musical products.

Table 7 compiles data related to beat and tempo characteristics. First, the beat is present in more than 50% of the groups. Specialists are the ones that used it more frequently, followed by Generalists, Grade 3, Grade 9, while in Grade 11 only one group used a beat. If we look at the tempo characteristics (stable, unstable or modified voluntarily), we can see that a stable tempo is present in the same groups that include a clear beat in their musical product.

Table 7. Use of beat/tempo in musical products.

The following three tables show the main characteristics of the visual representations’ analysis: principles of design, elements of design, and symbolic representation. Table 8 presents the elements that structure the visual representation, called the principles of design—which can be described as “schema by which elements in artwork are planned, organized, and analyzed” ([21]). Regarding the first subcategory (Position)—which treats the positioning of the different elements of design (e.g., lines, figures, objects)—we note that most of the groups used juxtaposition (83%), overlapping (79%) and parallel lines (88%).

Different perspectives are also used in the visual products; the horizontal perspective is more frequent (83%) than the vertical perspective (67%). We also note, in relation to the Organizational logic (i.e., the rules according to which the elements of design are organised) that a more coherent way of organizing the visual product seems to be more frequent (96%) than a random one (54%). Regarding the scale of the visual objects used in the musical products, it seems that medium size objects are most frequently used (88%) by all the musicers. One of the characteristics that is often used is the repetition of elements of design (96%).

Table 8. Use of principles of design in visual products.

Table 9 shows the Elements of design—which are the “visual […] parts of a composition” (e.g., colors, shapes, lines). Regarding the type of colors used in the musical product, both warm and cool colors are used in similar proportion (88%). Looking at the type of shapes used—i.e., “[an] enclosed area defined and described by elements such as color, value, line, and/or texture” ([21])—we see that irregular (i.e., an object or a representation with irregular, free-flowing) or organic forms (often a natural shape) are the most frequent types used by all the musicers (84%). Interestingly, our younger composers, Grade 3, used a greater number of geometric shapes (83%).

Finally, Table 10 shows the presence of Symbolic representation—which addresses whether a visual product is representational (i.e., “something made [that]

Table 9. Use of elements of design in visual products.

may stand for, or bring to mind, some other thing”, [5]), or abstract (i.e., “[…] which do not seem to represent other bodily objects”, [4]). In general, musicers tend to use more representational elements in their products (88%) than abstract elements (56%). This distinction can be clearly observed in all groups, except in Grade 3 musicers, who used abstract and representational elements equally. If we look closely at what is represented in the visual products, various day-to-day objects (e.g., a school bus), are the most frequently used (60%) by all musicers. Eleven groups of musicers from Grade 3, 9, 11 and Generalists used the visual representation of distinctive musical objects (e.g., musical instrument) in their products, which was not the case for Music Specialists.

Table 10. Use of symbolic representation in visual products.

Following the analysis of the musical and visual products separately, we looked at possible relationships between the two. Due to large amount of data available, we chose to focus on relationships that emerged during the coding: the concepts of beat and its visual representation and, the musical representation of abstract and figurative visual elements⁷. Looking at relationships between visual and musical products and the use of beat, we noted whether among the elements of design, disposition could represent beats. We then looked if some elements relative to the notation of beats in a musical score from the western tradition (e.g., alignment, juxtaposition, repetition of notational figures) (see Figure 1) could be found in the visual products. We noted that 80% (n = 12) of the musicers that included beats in their musical products also used some visual objects (e.g., geometrical shapes) and juxtaposed them to one another.

Figure 1. Musical score in traditionnal western notation and its principles of design.

Once we determined which visual principles characterize beats in a musical score, we then investigated the musical products that used beats. We found 14 of them (n = 14). Table 11 presents the results of this inquiry. First, we note that all grade 3 and 11 groups using beats also used all the associated principles of design. If we look at one example (visual product of Gr11.2, see Figure 2), the beat is represented by the equidistant dotes that are present throughout. In the audio recording, the beat is played by the egg shakers and is heard during the whole performance. In opposition, Grade 9 groups less frequently used the principals of the visual representation of beat (between 33% and 67%). Secondly, we can see that most groups using beats in their musical product used principles of design of juxtaposition and repetition (93% for both principles), especially in Grade 3, 11, Generalists and Music Specialists. Parallel lines are also strongly present when representing beats (86%). Thirdly, the principles of perspective are the ones less used by musicers (64% to 71%).

Table 11.Representation of beats in visual products.

Figure 2. Example of a representation of beats (Raining Night - Grade 11 - Gr11.2).

Another relationship we investigated was the one between the sound and the use of abstract and representational elements in visual products. Specifically, we analysed the use of sound effects (e.g., sound of wind obtained by blowing into a flute), melodic patterns and specific instruments were represented in an abstract drawing (e.g., only lines and forms) or in a more figurative (representational) drawing (e.g., scene of nature, drawing of an instrument). We found 15 soundscapes that included these as abstract elements (n= 15) and 22 as representational elements (n= 22). Table 12 and Table 13 show that melodic instruments are used most frequently as representational elements in Grade 9 groups, while other groups have similar ratios. Regarding the use of melody, the Music Specialists used it more frequently to represent abstract elements. Sound effects are more often used for representational elements, more specifically by Grade 3 and Generalists. Finally, percussive effects are more present in Grade 3 groups using representational elements, while guttural or mouth noises are used in a higher rate by Grade 11 as representational elements.

The following figures (Figure 3 and Figure 4) show the wide range the visual products that were created by the musicers in terms of their degree of abstraction.

Table 12. Use of musical elements in visual products with abstract elements.

Table 13. Use of musical elements in visual prducts with representational elements.

Figure 3 is a representational drawing of a sunset created by Generalists (Gen2) where we clearly distinguish the sky, the trees and the hills. From a sound perspective, we hear different instruments such as the snare drum, glockenspiel, egg shaker and woodblock played in a decrescendo. Different colors are used for the sunset representing different layers of sound, the trees are portrayed by the shakers, and the mountains are the beats that are always there, supporting both nature and music. On the other end of the spectrum, we observe the visual product of a group of third graders (Gr3.1); an abstract creation that includes only curves and wavy lines (Figure 4). The colors and shapes are chosen to reflect the choice of instruments children are using and the way they are being played. Even though the title seems evocative, Five Night at Freddy boum 12, is abstract, not depicting a specific scene.

Through the analysis of the musical products generated in this study, we found that musical training seems to be associated with greater diversity in creative products. Indeed, the groups with fewest musical experiences, third and eleventh graders, had similar results. Researchers have explored how participation in a general music education, be it at home or in school, can support creation of musical products ([3]; [7]; [34]; [71]; [75]). [3] studied how very young children took part in song making. Her participants were exposed to a rich musical life at home and in an early childhood music program. They were able to adapt material they had heard and to use it in their own music-making, suggesting that one can see ‘the beginnings of an individual and personal style’ through this process (p. 66). Similarly, [7] examined whether creative musical activities of 5- and 6-year-olds, offered as part of a musical training program and periods of free play, promoted the representation and understanding of two musical parameters (pitch and duration). Through the analysis of the musical products and children’s comments, he found that such program increased the development of their auditory discrimination abilities and their capacity of notating the musical elements.

On the other hand, [75] suggests that teachers should use revision as a teaching process to support children’s ability to create music. Through a review of the literature, he explains how the process of revising the students’ projects allows the teacher to be an agent in helping them develop a stronger understanding of music. He proposes a list of ‘building blocks’ to use revision as a pedagogy, among which: “Teach the formal properties of music at the appropriate time .... The simple fact that the more children know about something, the more creative they can be” (p. 109).

Therefore, it seems that training is a relevant factor influencing the musicers musical products, maybe even more than age. As mentioned earlier, in our study, participants with less musical training, although of different ages, 8 and 17, did not show as much diversity in their use of musical elements compared to the other groups. Additionally, the students in Grade 11 did not include the beat as often as the other musicers. This seems to be in contradiction with [67] theory of musical development based on age. In the light of our research that compared musicers of different ages and experiences, it seems important to recommend that this theory be revisited to develop a better understanding of the music learning of diverse learners. Since music in the community has flourished in the past years, with several adults delving in lifelong learning opportunities, we now see people of different ages and experiences interested in developing their musical skills ([23]). As [45] points out, this requires great flexibility from teachers, an ability to understand diverse personal and professional motivations, while drawing on a wide range of performing, creating and listening experiences. It therefore seems important to expand our understanding of musical development.

While planning this study, we chose Schafers’ creative process focusing on soundscapes which provided both sound and visual products. Although offering access for notation to musicers without formal training in music, this specific form of notation generates a precise type of creative product that tends to be more representational of the surrounding sounds (rain, wind, cafeteria, bus). Because our participants were introduced to the work of Murray Schaffer, through listening to his work and looking at scores, they tended to use the same type of notation that they were introduced to. Similarly, [7], who used invented musical notation with preschoolers, provides examples of notation that are highly inspired by the traditional western notation, which is connected to the training those children received.

Therefore, the creative proposition that learners are given seems to lead to specific visual representations. This brings up the question of music exposure and culture and their roles in music creation. All our participants were part of the western world, surrounded by western music and receiving a music education centered on the western tradition (including notation). Interestingly, the way they chose to represent the beat visually used the same characteristics as traditional western notation: a repeated visual figure, using parallel elements, and juxtaposed to one another. This questions how well this cultural element is integrated or if it is a shared element of music within cultures. An important step would now be to explore how people from other cultures interact with the creation of musical and visual soundscapes. How would their life experience interact with this proposition? Since many cultures favoured an oral transmission in which notation does not have the same importance, can this approach translate into other cultures? Teachers in the 21st century must be aware of these realities and will need to navigate through them as they teach children from diverse backgrounds.

The strengths of this study rely on the possibility to compare musicers of different ages and musical knowledge due to the use of Shafer’s soundscaping and visual representations. Not using traditional western notation opens the possibility of creating music to a much larger group of participants and allows us to observe how they generate creative products, including both sound and visual components.

However, some limits also arise from our research. First, we had groups of participants that were not proportionate in numbers. This means that we must interpret the results carefully, mostly for the categories that include fewer participants. Additionally, the different contexts in which our participants developed their creations, as well as the musical materials available, were different and sometimes difficult to compare. For example, only the Grade 9 students had access to a variety of melodic instruments (woodwinds), the others mostly used percussion instruments. This, of course, influences the analysis of the melodic components but also others such as sound effects. Another limit to our study is that, by its qualitative nature, generalisation is not possible. Research is needed to further understand the creative process and products of a variety of musicers in a more controlled environment (similar instruments, same number of participants in groups).

This study opened the possibility of studying musical products of musicers of different ages and experiences. It brought light to the role that music exposure and training plays in developing creative musical skills. Since our study included a short intervention that generated one creative product, future research could focus on how these skills developed over time, and in diverse cultural contexts, allowing different musicers to explore how they ‘think in and with sound’ ([75]).