The Taoist exploration of the essence of mind always revolves around “Tao” and “Qi”. Laozi regarded “Tao” as the source, while Zhuangzi further internalized “Tao” into the essence of mind, thereby constructing a unique theory of the “Tao-Mind” relationship. “Qi” serves as the material basis of the mind, providing a material foundation for the functions and phenomena of the mind.

2.1.1. Tao as the Metaphysical Foundation of Origin

The initial form of the Taoist concept of “heart-mind” (xin) was systematically constructed by Laozi in the Tao Te Ching. Laozi concretized the ideal state of the heart-mind by likening “one who possesses an abundance of De (Virtue)” to “the newborn baby (chizi)” ([8]).

A newborn baby symbolizes the original, uncorrupted state of the heart-mind, untouched by worldly influences. Its characteristics of being without knowledge, without desires, and naturally non-acting are precisely the ultimate realm of the ideal heart-mind. On this basis, Laozi regarded “De” (Virtue) as the concrete embodiment of the metaphysical principle of “Tao” within the individual. He held that “one who possesses an abundance of De” is, in essence, one who possesses an abundance of Tao. Thus, the “newborn baby” becomes the symbol of a person who has attained Tao and is imbued with its De.

Through the metaphor of the “heart-mind of the newborn baby”, Laozi not only gave concrete form to the ideal state of the heart-mind but also forged an intrinsic link between Tao and heart-mind. By doing so, he established a conception of the heart-mind that originates from Tao. Consequently, the essence of the heart-mind is in communion with the intrinsic nature of Tao.

Regarding the characteristics of Tao, the Tao Te Ching offers numerous profound insights, and its core trait lies in “emptiness and stillness”. As Chapter 16 states: “Attain the utmost emptiness; maintain the deepest stillness. Though the myriad things arise together, I thereby observe their return” ([8]).

Laozi believed that through the ultimate state of emptiness and stillness, the heart-mind is able to observe the patterns of all things, thereby achieving union with Tao. “Emptiness and stillness” is not only an important means of cultivating the heart-mind but also an inherent and essential attribute of the heart-mind itself. It is both the path through which the heart-mind attains its ideal state and the intrinsic requirement of the essence of the heart-mind.

Zhuangzi inherited and developed Laozi’s concept of the heart-mind as originating from “Tao”. He also believed that the essential nature of the heart-mind is emptiness, stillness, and non-action, like a clear mirror and still water. He stated: “How tranquil is the heart-mind of the sage! It is the mirror of heaven and earth” ([6]). However, on the practical level, the ordinary person’s heart-mind is often agitated by external things, “engaging with and becoming entangled by contacts, daily using the heart-mind in strife” ([6]). This manifests as the proliferation of the deluded mind, which drifts far from Tao. To address this problem, Zhuangzi was the first to propose the term “spirit” (jingshen)and integrate it into his philosophical system of the heart-mind. He pointed out: “Spirit is born from the Tao, and physical form is fundamentally born from spirit” ([6]). This clarifies the origin of both the heart-mind and the physical form, intimately linking the mind to the natural Tao.

As Mr. Xu Fuguan insightfully stated: “The core idea of Zhuangzi is to internalize Laozi’s objective ‘Tao’ into the realm of human life, and further to transform the objective concepts of ‘essence’ and ‘spirit’ into the very character of mind activity. The heart-mind is not merely a mass of flesh and blood, but rather ‘essence’; the activity emanating from this ‘essence’ of the heart-mind is then ‘spirit’. Taken together, they constitute ‘spirit’” ([13]).

This perspective reveals the core position of “spirit” in Zhuangzi’s philosophy of the heart-mind. The heart-mind is the carrier of conscious activity. Its essence is emptiness, stillness, and non-action, yet it is easily disturbed by external things and loses its original state. “Spirit”, however, is the spiritual substance that transcends individual consciousness. Its purity must be maintained through cultivation methods such as the “fasting of the heart-mind”. “Tao”, as the source of the cosmos and ultimate truth, is the root of both the heart-mind and spirit. Thus, the heart-mind is the mirror of “Tao”, and spirit is its flowing current; the three are interconnected and fully realized in the natural and non-active state of life.

2.1.2. The “Essence-Qi” Constitutes the Material Foundation of the Body

In exploring the essence of the heart-mind, Taoist philosophy not only approaches it from the metaphysical perspective of “Tao” but also elucidates it through the material-level concept of “qi”. These two elements together constitute the integral essence of the heart-mind.

“Qi”, as one of the core concepts in Taoism, often has complex and diverse meanings. Some scholars have summarized the concept of “qi” discussed by the Taoists of the Pre-Qin period into four meanings: the qi of heaven and earth, the qi of breath, the qi of blood, and the qi of essence ([7]).

Among them, the “qi of heaven and earth” refers to the natural qi that exists universally in the universe, which is the basic substance for the generation and operation of all things. The “qi of breath” refers to respiratory energy, which is directly related to life activities. The “qi of blood and vitality” refers to the physiological energy within the human body, which is closely related to vitality and health conditions.

These three types of “qi” primarily belong to “qi” in the material sense. They are material existences and do not directly involve the spiritual dimension. However, the “qi of vital essence” has a unique spiritual connotation. It is the most subtle and refined part of “qi”, serving not only as the fundamental driving force of vital activities but also as the material basis for the activities of the heart-mind.

The works that closely integrate the concept of “qi” with the heart-mind and individual cultivation and provide a systematic exposition of it are the four chapters of the Guanzi by Jixia and the Huainanzi of the Western Han Dynasty. Although there is controversy among scholars regarding the academic circle to which the Guanzi belongs, these four chapters of Guanzi (including Neiye, Baixin, Xinshu I, and Xinshu II) have been widely recognized as important classics for studying Jixia Huang-Lao thought. Its “Monism of Qi” regards “qi” as the origin of all things in the universe and, on this basis, constructs a unique conception of the heart-mind.

In the view of the Guanzi, the essence of the heart-mind’s activity is the condensation, dispersal, and flow of “qi”. “Qi” is not only the material foundation constituting all things between heaven and earth, but also the material basis of the heart-mind: “The essence of all things is what gives them life. It generates the five grains on the earth; it becomes the arrayed stars in the sky; flowing between heaven and earth, it is called ghosts and spirits; stored within the breast, it is called the sage” ([9]). Here, “essence” is the purest and most refined state of “qi”, and the condensation of “essence-qi” is precisely the essence of the heart-mind: “Essence is the purest form of qi” ([9]). Within this framework, the human mind is not an independent entity, but rather the subtle form and dynamic manifestation of “qi”. The Guanzi further stated, “Qi gives rise to Tao, Tao gives rise to thought, and thought gives rise to knowledge” ([9]). This clearly reveals the relationship between “qi” and life, thought, and cognition. It is evident that “qi” constitutes the foundation of both life and consciousness.

The Huainanzi inherited and developed the theory of “qi”, proposing the theory of the unity of “form, spirit, and qi” for the body and mind, and systematically revealing the essence and operational mechanism of the heart-mind. Its core view holds that the heart-mind is not an independent entity, but rather a dynamic whole constituted by form, spirit, and “qi”. Only through the coordinated operation of these three can the clarity of the heart-mind and the integrity of life be achieved.

Specifically:

1) The body is the material carrier of life and the material basis for mental activities. The Huainanzi emphasized that “the body is the dwelling place of life” ([11]), maintaining that the body is the carrier of life and the heart-mind.

2) The spirit is the master of life activities and has a regulatory and controlling effect on physical functions. “The spirit is the controller of life” ([11]). The spirit is the master of life, dominating cognitive, emotional, and volitional activities.

3) Qi is the source of energy for life, maintaining the normal functions of the body, driving various activities, and serving as the medium connecting form and spirit. That is to say, “Qi is the driving force of life” ([11]).

The relationship among the three is expressed as “if any one loses its proper place, all three are harmed” ([11]). Therefore, the body, the spirit, and qi must each rest in its proper place and coordinate with one another. An imbalance in any single element will lead to the collapse of the whole. The three should maintain a dynamic equilibrium.

Through the integration of “Tao” and “Qi”, the Taoist philosophy of the heart-mind has constructed a unique framework for understanding the essence of the heart-mind. “Tao”, serving as the metaphysical basis of the heart-mind, emphasizes its state of emptiness, stillness, and non-action of the heart-mind. “Qi”, acting as the material basis of the heart-mind, reveals its dynamic nature.

Taoist philosophy of the heart-mind not only focuses on the essence of the heart-mind but also explores its functions. From the Taoist perspective, the heart-mind is not only the subject of cognition but also plays a role in regulating emotions and behaviors.

2.2.1. Cognition Function: Introspection and Reasoning

The Taoist cognitive theory of the heart-mind is built on a critique of traditional modes of cognition. It adopts an approach of “destroying first and then establishing” to construct its own view of heart-mind cognition.

The main objects of its critique are sensory cognition and language. Laozi pointed out, “The five colors cause one’s eyes to be blinded; the five sounds cause one’s ears to be deafened; the five flavors cause one’s palate to be dulled” ([8]). He believed that worldly cognition relies too heavily on sensory experiences, which can easily lead one astray from one’s true nature and obscure the understanding of “Tao”.

Taoism also reveals the limitations of external cognitive tools such as language. Laozi said: “The Tao that can be spoken of is not the eternal Tao; the name that can be named is not the eternal name” ([8]). He believed that language and concepts fragment and simplify “Tao”, and true wisdom cannot be fully conveyed through language.

Zhuangzi further pointed out, “Words are meant to convey meaning; once the meaning is grasped, the words are forgotten” ([6]). He emphasized that language is merely a tool, and being obsessed with words only obscures the true meaning.

In the Taoist view, neither sensory perception nor language can attain true knowledge. The task of embodying and apprehending Tao should be entrusted to the heart-mind. As Laozi pointed out, “Without stepping out of one’s home, one can understand the affairs and principles of the world. Without looking out through a window, one can gain insight into the natural order and the laws of the universe. The farther one travels, the less knowledge one acquires. Therefore, the sage knows without personal experience, understands without seeing with his own eyes, and accomplishes without deliberate action” ([8]).

This indicates that true knowledge does not rely on the accumulation of experience but originates from introspection and embodied realization. Chen Guying, in his work The Annotated Critical Laozi:With Contemporary Explication and Traditional Commentary, pointed out that Laozi’s thought embodies a pursuit of “inner transcendence” ([1]). This pursuit involves gaining insight into the essence of the universe through inner contemplation and introspection, enabling one to perceive the external world clearly.

Therefore, Taoism advocates comprehending and embodying Tao through introspection and sudden enlightenment, using the empty and still mind to reflect all things and directly intuit the truth, rather than relying on experience.

Of course, Taoism does not merely advocate the introspection of the heart-mind; it also recognizes the important role of logical reasoning in the cognitive process. The Huainanzi put forward the cognitive methods of “inferring the large from the small” and “inferring the distant from the near”.

The meaning of “inferring the large from the small” is that by observing minute things, one can infer the overall situation. When one sees a single leaf fall, one knows that the year is coming to an end; when one sees water freeze in a bottle, one knows that the whole world has turned cold. The meaning of “inferring the distant from the near” is to infer distant situations based on immediate things. That is, it involves moving from the near to the far and seeing the whole from a tiny part. “If three people walk side by side, they cannot even get out of the door; if they walk one following another in sequence, they can travel throughout the world” ([11]).

This discussion embodies analogical reasoning and indicates the initial understanding and application of logical thinking in Taoism. All of these views are unified under the category of “Tao”, integrating inner introspection with logical reasoning. The core always emphasizes that “when the ‘Tao’ that conforms to the laws of nature is established, the heart-mind returns to its original and authentic state” ([11]). It advocates a return to the original heart-mind of emptiness, stillness, and purity, integrating introspection with logical reasoning.

2.2.2. Regulatory Function: The Balance between Emotions and Behaviors

Individual self-cultivation lies at the core of Taoist thought, and cultivating the heart-mind is the key to such cultivation. From the Taoist perspective, the heart-mind is regarded as the sovereign of all faculties. It not only has the cognitive function of embodying and awakening to “Tao” but also serves to balance emotions and regulate behavior.

“When the spirit is calm, and the heart-mind is harmonious, one naturally finds peace within. If the spirit and heart-mind cannot be pure and tranquil, then the body and spirit will be disquieted, and disease will ensue” ([18]). As a medical classic deeply influenced by Taoist thought, the Yellow Emperor’s Inner Canon (Huangdi Neijing) also provides corroborative evidence for this view, which correlates the five psychological emotions (joy, anger, worry, contemplation, and fear) with the functions of the five internal organs, such as “anger impairs the liver” and “joy impairs the heart”. It holds that excessive emotions directly impair the functions of the internal organs.

Therefore, the Yellow Emperor’s Inner Canon proposed that “if one is calm and free from emptiness, the true qi will follow, and the spirit will be self-controlled” ([16]), advocating that by maintaining the emptiness and stillness of the heart-mind, the true qi within the body can flow smoothly, and emotions can naturally be balanced.

The Huainanzi also emphasized the importance of nourishing the heart-mind and spirit. “In cultivating the mind and body, the highest realm is to nourish the spirit, followed by caring for the physical form…When the spirit is clear and the will is balanced, all parts of the body are at peace—this is the foundation of nurturing one’s nature” ([11]).

This indicates that a clear spirit and a peaceful will are the foundation for the health and well-being of all parts of the body, as well as the essence of health preservation.

Taoist thought not only focuses on emotional well-being but also explores the regulatory function of the heart-mind on behavior. For an individual, behavioral activities are controlled by thinking activities, and thinking activities are, in turn, dominated by “spirit”, “essence”, and “qi”.

Therefore, the Guanzi proposed that “thinking generates wisdom and cognition, and wisdom enables one to know when to stop” ([9]), emphasizing that only through cognitive restraint can one avoid losing control over one’s behavior.

Furthermore, the heart-mind regulation of rulers is also related to the long-term stability and security of the country. “When the heart-mind is at peace, the country is at peace; when the heart-mind is governed, the country is governed” ([9]). That is to say, the stability of the country stems from the stability of the people’s heart-mind; the key to governing the country lies in the governance of the people’s hearts and minds.

The ultimate goal of the individual heart-mind is to achieve overall harmony in social behavior. The Taoist theory of emotional regulation not only provides individuals with a guide for self-cultivation but also offers natural principles for governing the country. Cultivating the heart-mind and governing the country go hand in hand without contradiction.

The Taoist revelation of the nature and functions of the heart-mind demonstrates the inheritance and development of self-cultivation paths across different periods of Taoism, providing operable practical methods for the transformation from the ordinary heart-mind to the sage’s heart-mind.

The primary issue in achieving the transformation of the heart-mind lies in whether the sage’s heart-mind can be attained, and what the possibility and basis are for transcending the ordinary to become a sage. Based on the primordial and universal nature of “Tao”, Taoism provides a systematic answer to this question.

The possibility of transcending the ordinary to become a sage is rooted in the innate endowment of human nature. Laozi stated in the Tao Te Ching: “One who possesses profound De (virtue) is like a newborn baby (chizi)”, holding that the infant, being without knowledge and without desires and untouched by worldly contamination, is the concrete embodiment of the highest virtue. Human beings naturally possess the potential to connect with “Tao”, as stated in “Tao gives birth to them, and De (virtue) nurtures them” ([8]). Thus, “eternal De (virtue) will never be lost, and one will return to the pure and innocent state of an infant” ([8]). It can be seen that the true nature of human beings contains the innate endowment for saigehood. To transcend the ordinary and achieve sage is not an external imposition but a return to one’s own innate endowment.

Zhuangzi explored the theoretical basis for transcending the ordinary and attaining the sage from the perspective of “Tao unifies all things into one”. He used specific examples such as “ants”, “tiles and bricks”, and “excrement and urine” to illustrate the universality of “Tao” ([6]). This universality indicates that although all things have different appearances, they all originate from “Tao”.

The “Tao” mentioned by Zhuangzi is not an external transcendent entity but a natural state internalized in the human heart. In other words, the sacred heart is not out of reach but an inherent potential in human nature.

On this basis, through self-cultivation and practice, a person can reach the realm of “Heaven and Earth coexist with me, and all things are one with me”, achieving a return to “Tao” and thus transcending the ordinary to attain sainthood.

The four Guanzi chapters and the Huainanzi supplemented this view from the perspective of the theory of qi. The Guanzi: Neiye stated: “The essence of all things is what gives them life. It generates the five grains on the earth; it becomes the arrayed stars in the sky; flowing between heaven and earth, it is called ghosts and spirits; stored within the breast, it is called the sage” ([9]). This indicated that “essence-qi” is the origin of all things and also the essence of the sage’s heart-mind. The sage, like all things, is merely a different manifestation of “essence-qi”, thereby essentially affirming the connection between the ordinary heart-mind and the sage’s heart-mind. The individual can achieve the transformation from the ordinary heart-mind to the sage’s heart-mind by cultivating and nourishing essence-qi.

The Huainanzi proposed that “one should preserve one’s true nature and without losing oneself” ([11]). It holds that human beings are born by receiving the essence-qi of heaven and earth, and their original nature is naturally complete. One need only remove acquired obscurations through self-cultivation to manifest one’s sage nature.

The Taoist philosophy of heart-mind, through the combination of “negative cultivation” (fu gongfu) and “positive cultivation” (zheng gongfu), provides clear path guidance for attaining sainthood.

3.2.1. Negative Cultivation: Purifying the Ordinary Mind

The focus of “negative” self-cultivation is to purify the ordinary mind in order to attain a sacred state of heart-mind. Worldly desires and ignorance obscure the path to the sage, causing the spiritual realm to remain at the level of an “ordinary heart-mind” or a “foolish heart-mind”. Therefore, the cultivation effort of transcending the ordinary and achieving sage entails the cleansing of desires, emotions, and cognition, as well as eliminating their negative impact on a person’s true life. Taoism summarizes “negative” cultivation as “Guarding the center” (Shou Zhong), “Fasting of the heart-mind” (Xin Zhai), and “Sitting in forgetfulness” (Zuo Wang).

To “guard the center” is to “guard the heart-mind”. How can one achieve “guarding the center”? Laozi believed that the core cultivation was “emptiness and stillness”. “Emptiness” signified a state of a clear and pure mind achieved by discarding distracting thoughts and preconceptions. “Stillness” denoted the stabilization of the mind, free from the disturbances of desires and emotions. Only through the cultivation practice of “guarding the center” and “making the heart-mind as clear as a mirror to cleanse the mysterious” can one reach the ideal state of a “newborn baby”.

The four Guanzi chapters also inherited the practice of “eliminating desires”. For example, XinshuI held that “when desires are emptied, the spirit will enter its dwelling; when impurities are swept away, the spirit will remain” ([9]). This indicates that through the practice of emptiness and stillness, one transforms the heart-mind and cleanses the “abode of spirit” in preparation for receiving the “spirit”. The “spirit” mentioned here refers to Tao.

Zhuangzi extended the “negative” cultivation, proposing “fasting of the heart-mind” and “sitting in forgetfulness”, thus pushing the path to the sage toward self-transcendence. In The Human World (Renjian Shi), Zhuangzi, speaking through Confucius, expounded the concept of “fasting of the heart-mind”: “If you unify your will, do not listen with your ears, but listen with your heart-mind; do not listen with your heart-mind, but listen with your qi” ([6]). This emphasizes transcending sensory experience and cognitive thinking, using “qi” as a medium to directly connect with Tao.

In this process, “the original self and its spiritual world no longer exist, replaced by a purified self and spiritual world” ([15]). “Sitting in forgetfulness” deepens the cleansing of the ordinary mind, with its core being “forgetting” and “losing”. In The Great Master (Dazong Shi), Yan Hui achieved unity with Tao by “discarding limbs and body, expelling intelligence and perception, departing from form and ridding oneself of knowledge, thereby becoming one with the Great Thoroughfare” ([6]).

This is manifested as a dual rejection of sensory input and conceptual cognition. This is essentially the dissolution of the existing “self” (wo), that is, “I lose myself” (wu sang wo). The process from “self” to “oneself” is precisely the path to transcend the ordinary and reach the sacred.

3.2.2. Positive Cultivation: Cultivation and Transformation

After eliminating the negative factors in the process of attaining sage and self-cultivation, Taoism systematically constructed a practical path for the transformation of the heart-mind. Laozi’s theory of “Zhuan qi” forms the core practice of his thought on heart-mind cultivation. Here, “qi” refers to the blood-qi that forms the basis of life. Laozi believed that “Zhuan qi can gather essence-qi to make the body supple; it can be like an infant maintaining their innocent nature” ([8]4). This reveals the unique path to achieving spiritual transcendence through the material “qi”—that is, through the cultivation of the “Zhuan qi”, ultimately attaining the ideal state of the “infant”, which is emblematic of the authentic state of the heart-mind.

In essence, the practice of “Zhuan qi” is the art of regulating and controlling the blood-qi of life, and its core lies in grasping the principle of “ultimate softness”. This principle has a dual meaning: First, at the methodological level, it emphasizes conforming to the natural movement and transformation of qi, rejecting forced human intervention, thereby aligning with “non-action” (wu wei). Second, in terms of the attitude toward self-cultivation, it advocates maintaining a mind of softness, weakness, and humility, thereby achieving the cultivation sequence of “aligning with qito cultivate the body, and nourishing qito clarify the heart-mind”. It is precisely through this cultivation practice of integrating with natural qi that an individual can reach the ideal state of “unity with Tao”.

The Guanzi emphasized the cultivation practice of “Zhuan qi” from the perspective of spiritual essence-qi and proposes that “Zhuan qi is to become spirit; then all things are fully present” ([9]). This view reveals that by condensing the essence-qi of spirit, one can reach a state of communion with the divine and thus gain insight into the essential laws of all things.

Guanzi further extended the concept of “Zhuan qi” into the political realm, contending that the monarch, by regulating his own qi, can impact the governance of the country. He pointed out: “When the heart-mind is at peace, the country is at peace; when the heart-mind is governed, the country is governed” ([9]). Here, both “peace of mind” and “governance of the mind” depend on the regulation of “qi”.

As Zhang Lianwei said, “It (the Guanzi) not only explains social politics and human activities through qi but also uses it to explain various spiritual phenomena related to human beings themselves, taking the theory of qi as an important theoretical basis for the moral cultivation of the monarch” ([17]). This assertion reflects the unique contribution of the Guanzi’s theory of qi: it organically unifies the metaphysical philosophy of qi with concrete political practice, forming a theoretical system that links individual cultivation with the governance of the country.

The Four Classics of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi Sijing) puts forward the cognitive cultivation path of “preserving knowledge” (cun zhi), asserting that the sage “perceives and knows the world without succumbing to confusion”. In terms of cognitive ability, “Only the sage can perceive the formless and hear the soundless” ([2]). The sage possesses a perceptual dimension that surpasses that of ordinary people, enabling them to grasp the metaphysical reality of the “formless” and the “soundless”. In the cognitive realm, through this special mode of cognition, the sage can attain the ultimate state of “penetrating the Great Void” (tong da xu).In terms of cognitive effect, the sage is manifested as being in communion with the essence-qi of heaven and earth and as being united and integrated with Tao. It flows endlessly and is never exhausted ([2]). This view advocates cultivating cognition through a specific path of self-cultivation, ultimately achieving a transcendent understanding of “unity with Tao”.

The Huainanzi adopted a more realistic approach to self-cultivation from the perspective of human nature: “Serenity and tranquility are intended to cultivate one’s nature. Harmony and emptiness are employed to cultivate virtue. If external things do not disrupt the heart-mind, nature will have a proper abode. If one’s nature does not interfere with inner peace, virtue will have a stable place. Those who can cultivate their nature, conduct themselves in the world, cultivate virtue, and enjoy their old age in peace can be said to have grasped the essence of Tao” ([11]). This view advocates cultivating one’s nature through “serenity and tranquility” and fostering virtue through “harmony and contentment with emptiness”, so as to make one’s nature appropriate and virtue in its proper place. One has attained the state of “appropriateness” and “right place”, that is, “embodying Tao”, which means the complete practice of the principles of Tao in both body and mind.

Taoist philosophy of heart-mind has constructed a complete normative system of the heart-mind, holding that the intrinsic basis for becoming a sage lies in the “Tao” inherently contained in human nature. By returning to the original state of existence, an individual can achieve the transformation from an ordinary heart-mind to a sacred heart-mind. Within this theoretical framework, Taoism creatively proposed a practical path that unifies “negative cultivation” and “positive cultivation”. The former focuses on breaking through the obscuring of acquired habits, while the latter is dedicated to revealing the innate true nature of Tao. This two-way, mutually reinforcing approach provides systematic methodological guidance for the transformation of an individual’s heart-mind.

In the pursuit of the ideal personality, there are resonances between the East and the West. There is a transcendental reality, which is God and Tao, and there are objective values in God and Tao. Our lives will be meaningful if we form a relationship with the ultimate reality. However, they both pay much attention to our everyday life since God and Tao are both immanent in all things in nature. We can form a relationship with the ultimate reality through establishing a close relationship with the world we live in ([4]).

Taoism discusses the essence of the heart-mind in terms of “Tao” and its function in terms of “qi”. Through a series of cultivation methods and practical paths, it achieves spiritual freedom in the present world, ultimately liberating the heart-mind from the shackles of artificiality (ren wei) and restoring it to its natural, authentic state.

Taoist philosophy of heart-mind is concerned not only with an individual’s pursuit of a valuable and meaningful life but also elevates this normative dimension to the level of social governance, closely integrating “governing the heart-mind” with “governing the country”. As Feng Youlan said, “The Huang-Lao philosophy of Jixia regards nurturing life and governing the country as two applications of the same principle” ([3]). This idea originated from Laozi: “If the principles of Tao are applied to an individual, one’s character will be pure and genuine. If the principles of Tao are implemented in the family, the family will be prosperous and abundant. If the principles of Tao are implemented in the countryside, virtuous governance will endure for a long time. If the principles of Tao are implemented throughout the country, the blessings will be abundant and widespread. If the principles of Tao are implemented throughout the world, noble behavioral norms and moral standards will spread across the land” ([8]). This is in line with the Confucian concept of “cultivating oneself, regulating the family, governing the country, and bringing peace to the world”.

“The Sage has no constant heart-mind; he takes the heart-mind of the common people as his heart-mind” ([8]). This is not only an exposition of the ideal state of personality but also a positioning of the ruler’s own heart-mind. In the Taoist view, rulers and common people are essentially no different. The reason why rulers stand out is that they are the first to penetrate the essence of the heart-mind and attain its ideal state through self-cultivation, thus becoming “forerunners of awakening”. Their mission is to guide the people toward a state of “no knowledge and no desire” through exemplary conduct, leading the hearts of the people back to Tao.

The Four Classics of the Yellow Emperor(Huangdi Sijing) also mentioned that the governance of a country should follow the sequence of “governing a country should start with self-improvement. A monarch must first cultivate his moral character and set a good example. A monarch should uphold impartial and fair laws and regulations and govern the country in accordance with these laws and regulations. The monarch should extend the impartial and fair laws throughout the country and govern the state by using the laws as a yardstick, so that all subjects can abide by the law and maintain social stability and development” ([2]). Here, the “central” precisely refers to “guarding the center”. This indicates that the ruler must first elevate his own heart-mind to the realm of a sage before he can effectively govern the country.

The Taoist philosophy of heart-mind holds that human beings are a unified whole composed of “qi”. However, “qi” itself contains multiple subsystems with different positions, structures, and functions, such as spirit, emotion, intention, essence, and corporeal soul. These subsystems are both independent of each other and influence one another, forming a complex mind-body system dominated by “qi” and characterized by the interaction of multiple elements. In this system, Taoism regards the mind and body as key factors in a multi-complex entity, rather than as a simple dichotomous opposition. This view of the body and mind not only emphasizes the unity of the body and mind but also pays attention to the coordination and balance among subsystems.

For instance, as recorded in the Huangdi Neijing: “When pathogenic factors invade the human body from the outside, affecting its normal physiological functions, when pathogenic factors invade the internal organs, they have no fixed place to stay. When pathogenic factors invade the human body, they affect the normal functions of the internal organs. When pathogenic factors invade the human body together with the ‘constructive and defensive qi’, it causes the ethereal and corporeal souls to flee” ([12]). This vividly illustrates the complexity of mind-body interaction and reveals the profound Taoist understanding of their relationship, demonstrating its distinctive pluralistic tendency.

The Taoist understanding of the relationship between the body and the mind is also reflected in its unified practice of “self-cultivation” and “governing the heart-mind”. Taoism holds that the health and harmony of both the body and mind are the foundation for achieving spiritual freedom and liberation. As the Zhuangzi·Dasheng stated: “A person with a healthy body and a vigorous spirit can be in harmony with Tao of heaven” ([6]). This indicates that only when all the subsystems of the body (such as essence, qi, and spirit) reach a state of harmony and unity can an individual truly conform to the natural Tao.

Under this concept, Taoist self-cultivation practice does not merely pursue physical health. Instead, it attains an overall balanced state by harmonizing the various subsystems of the body and mind. Cultivating qi is essential for preserving life and health, as different states of qi are associated with various bodily conditions ([14]). For example, Taoist practices such as “breathing exercises” and “guiding exercises” aim to facilitate the circulation of qi and blood by regulating the breath and body posture, thus influencing the tranquility and clarity of the heart-mind.

The scope and types of psychological phenomena with which the Taoist philosophy of heart-mind is concerned are extremely broad and diverse. It not only encompasses the relationship between the body and the mind but also delves deeply into various psychological types, such as essence, qi, spirit, numen, ethereal soul, and corporeal soul.

This expansive psychological perspective enables Taoism to understand the complexity of human psychology from multiple dimensions. For example, the Huangdi Neijing describes in detail how pathogenic qi affects the ethereal and corporeal souls, thereby giving rise to the psychological phenomenon of nightmares. It stated: “When pathogenic factors invade the human body, causing the ethereal and corporeal souls to flee and be unable to stay calm within, a person will experience symptoms such as restlessness during sleep and frequent dreams” ([12]). This description indicates that the generation of dreams is not only related to an individual’s internal psychological state but also closely connected to changes in the external environment. By attending to these diverse psychological types, the Taoist philosophy of heart-mind can achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the essence of psychological phenomena.

The Taoist philosophy of heart-mind, from a holistic perspective, can explain complex psychological phenomena more comprehensively and deeply. The holistic perspective emphasizes the integrity and multidimensionality of psychological phenomena, regarding their emergence and development as the result of the combined action of multiple factors.

For example, regarding the question of ghosts and spirits, Taoism attributes it to “spiritual disturbance”. This passage indicates that ghosts do not exist in reality but are illusions produced by people under illness or psychological stress. Through rational analysis, Taoism attributes these psychological phenomena to sensory effects, psychological effects, and environmental disturbances, thereby avoiding blind superstition about supernatural phenomena.

Based on a rational analysis of psychological phenomena, Taoism advocates maintaining the emptiness and stillness of the heart-mind and avoiding delusory disturbances. The holistic perspective held by Taoism avoids some limitations of Western philosophy of mind and demonstrates a profound insight into complex psychological phenomena.