A total of 385 questionnaires were distributed. Due to complete-case analysis, sample sizes varied slightly across specific analyses depending on missing data (See Table 1 and Table 2).

Table 1. Socio-Demographic characteristics of respondents.

Note: Exchange rate during study period ≈ ₦1500 = $1.

The majority of respondents were aged 20 - 40 years (77.6%), female (61.0%), and married (68.1%). Nurses constituted the largest professional group (54.5%), followed by doctors (22.6%), medical laboratory scientists (13.0%), pharmacists (8.3%), and psychologists (1.6%). Most respondents had between 1 and 5 years of professional experience (41.6%), and nearly half earned between ₦100,000 and ₦200,000 monthly.

Table 2. Prevalence of workplace frustration.

Overall, 280 respondents (72.7%) reported moderate-to-high levels of workplace frustration.

Table 3. Mean frustration score by professional cadre.

Note: One-way ANOVA: F (4, 380) = 2.04, p = 0.088 (not statistically significant).

Mean frustration scores varied across professional groups, with doctors reporting the highest mean score (3.43 ± 1.06), followed by pharmacists (3.13 ± 1.45), nurses (3.08 ± 1.16), medical laboratory scientists (2.93 ± 0.95), and psychologists (2.80 ± 1.53) (See Table 3).

However, these differences were not statistically significant (F (4, 380) = 2.04, p = 0.088), indicating that workplace frustration was broadly experienced across all cadres.

Table 4. Sources of frustration among healthcare workers.

Note: These findings suggest that both organizational conditions and structural health system deficiencies contribute substantially to healthcare worker frustration.

The most frequently reported sources of moderate-to-high frustration were:

lack of equipment/tools (88.0%)excessive workload (85.0%)poor salary (84.0%)

Other commonly reported factors included work–life imbalance (77.0%), workplace safety concerns (74.0%), limited research opportunities (71.0%), administrative burden (69.0%), and lack of professional development (68.0%) (See Table 4).

Table 5. Migration intentions and key motivating factors among healthcare workers.

A total of 313 respondents (81.3%) reported intention to migrate (See Table 5).

Among those expressing migration intention (n = 313), the most commonly cited reasons were:

better salary elsewhere (88.6%)improved career advancement opportunities (79.7%)desire to work in a more developed setting (74.7%)poor working conditions (65.8%)

Table 6. Correlation between workplace frustration and migration intention by professional cadre.

Pearson correlation analysis demonstrated statistically significant positive associations between workplace frustration and migration intention across all professional cadres (p < 0.001).

The strength of association ranged from moderate to strong, with the highest correlation observed among doctors (r = 0.67) and the lowest among psychologists (r = 0.43) (See Table 6).

Findings for smaller subgroups, particularly psychologists (n = 6), should be interpreted with caution due to limited statistical power and potential instability of estimates

These findings suggest that increasing levels of workplace frustration is an important consideration in migration intention among all healthcare worker groups (See Table 7).

Table 7. Multivariable logistic regression predicting migration intention.

Model: Pseudo R² = 0.114, p < 0.001.

Multivariable logistic regression analysis identified several independent predictors of migration intention.

Workplace frustration was a significant predictor, with higher frustration scores associated with increased likelihood of intending to migrate (aOR = 1.28, 95% CI: 1.16 - 1.41, p < 0.001).

Other significant predictors included:

age (aOR = 1.07, p = 0.010)salary (aOR = 1.06, p = 0.022)workload (aOR = 1.02, p = 0.005)equipment availability (aOR = 1.04, p = 0.030)

Professional cadre was also significantly associated with migration intention (p = 0.017), although interpretation depends on the reference category used in the regression model.

Gender and training opportunities were not statistically significant predictors.

The model demonstrated modest explanatory power (Pseudo R² = 0.114), indicating that additional unmeasured factors contribute to migration intention.

This study (Table 2 and Table 5) found a high prevalence of both workplace frustration and migration intention among healthcare workers in a tertiary hospital in North-Central Nigeria. These findings add to growing evidence that migration intentions in LMICs are influenced not only by structural and economic conditions, but also by adverse workplace experiences and unmet psychological needs [1][2][4][18].

The proportion of respondents expressing migration intention (81.3%) (Table 5) was notably high. Although intention does not necessarily translate into actual migration, such a high proportion suggests a substantial risk of future workforce attrition if underlying conditions remain unchanged. This finding is consistent with previous studies in Nigeria and other African settings, where poor remuneration, weak infrastructure, insecurity, and limited opportunities for career progression have been identified as major drivers of migration intention among healthcare workers [2][9]-[15][18][21]. Given the existing shortages in the health workforce, further losses through migration may deepen service delivery gaps and weaken already strained health systems [3][16]-[18].

Workplace frustration (Table 2) was also highly prevalent, affecting nearly three-quarters of respondents. This is consistent with prior research showing that healthcare workers in resource-constrained settings often experience frustration due to inadequate institutional support, poor infrastructure, technology-related barriers, insufficient staffing, and limited access to essential tools for effective practice [26][31]-[33]. Within the framework of SDT, such conditions may frustrate the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, thereby undermining motivation and increasing psychological strain [22][28][31]-[32].

Although mean frustration scores (Table 3) varied descriptively across professional cadres, the between-group difference was not statistically significant. This suggests that frustration may be a broadly shared occupational experience across cadres in this setting rather than a phenomenon restricted to one professional group. Such a pattern is plausible in under-resourced health systems where systemic deficiencies, such as poor equipment availability, excessive workload, weak organizational support, and limited career opportunities, affect multiple professional groups simultaneously [4]-[6][31]-[35]. Nevertheless, doctors recorded the highest mean frustration score (Table 3), which may reflect greater clinical responsibility, heavier decision-making burdens, and stronger awareness of international opportunities [11][12][21].

The specific sources of frustration identified (Table 4) in this study further support the structural nature of the problem. Lack of equipment and tools, excessive workload, and poor salary were the most frequently reported stressors. This is consistent with earlier evidence identifying poor working conditions, inadequate resources, and weak reward systems as key drivers of dissatisfaction, disengagement, and workforce attrition among healthcare professionals in low-resource settings [5][13][26][31][36]. Workplace safety concerns, administrative burden, and limited professional development opportunities were also prominent, indicating that frustration in this context arises from both material and organizational constraints.

A major finding of this study is the significant positive association between workplace frustration and migration intention across all professional cadres (Table 6). The magnitude of this association ranged from moderate to strong, with the strongest correlation observed among doctors. This is consistent with previous evidence showing that frustration, reward imbalance, and unmet workplace expectations are associated with stronger intention to leave one’s job or profession [26][30][34][35]. While much of the existing literature focuses on turnover intention rather than international migration, the present findings suggest that similar psychosocial mechanisms may contribute to migration intention as well [18][36].

The multivariable analysis strengthens this interpretation (Table 7). Workplace frustration remained independently associated with migration intention after adjustment for demographic and workplace factors. This aligns with studies suggesting that adverse work environments and unmet motivational needs function as important push factors in workforce retention and exit decisions [4][26][34]-[36]. It also accords with SDT, which posits that persistent frustration of basic psychological needs may be associated with disengagement and withdrawal behaviors, including efforts to seek more supportive environments [22]-[25]. Other significant predictors included age, salary, workload, and equipment availability, emphasizing the multifactorial nature of migration intention. The association with workload is in line with prior studies linking occupational overload and work-related strain to dissatisfaction and reduced retention [31]-[33]. Similarly, the significance of equipment availability supports the argument that healthcare workers may be more likely to consider migration when they are unable to perform their duties effectively because of resource constraints [18][21]. The salary finding is also unsurprising, given that remuneration remains one of the most frequently cited push factors in the migration literature [1][2][4][9]-[13]. However, as other studies suggest, financial dissatisfaction likely operates alongside broader concerns such as professional recognition, work environment quality, and career growth rather than in isolation [4][18].

The modest explanatory power of the regression model (Table 7), indicates that migration intention cannot be explained by workplace frustration alone. This is consistent with broader migration literature, which conceptualizes migration decisions as shaped by a complex interplay of personal aspirations, family considerations, security concerns, labor market opportunities, national conditions, and international demand for skilled professionals [5]-[7][14][18]. Workplace frustration is therefore best understood as one important component of a broader migration decision-making process.

Taken together, these findings highlight the need for comprehensive health workforce retention strategies in Nigeria. Improving infrastructure, reducing excessive workload, strengthening professional support systems, and expanding opportunities for career development may help reduce frustration and improve retention [4][17][18][36]. However, because this was a cross-sectional study, causality cannot be established. It is possible that individuals with pre-existing migration intentions may perceive workplace conditions more negatively, thereby reporting higher frustration. Longitudinal and multi-center studies are needed to clarify the temporal direction and broader generalizability of these associations.

This study demonstrates a high prevalence of workplace frustration and migration intention among healthcare workers in a tertiary hospital in North-Central Nigeria. Workplace frustration was significantly associated with migration intention, suggesting that adverse workplace experiences may contribute to healthcare workers’ consideration of international migration. Addressing structural deficiencies, improving working conditions, and supporting psychological well-being may be important components of workforce retention strategies in resource-constrained settings. Further longitudinal and multi-center studies are needed to clarify causal pathways and inform policy interventions.

The findings of this study have important implications for health workforce policy in Nigeria and similar resource-constrained settings. First, the prominence of inadequate equipment, excessive workload, and poor remuneration highlights the need for stronger investment in health system infrastructure and workforce support. Second, reducing workload through recruitment, improved staffing distribution, and supportive supervision may lessen occupational strain and improve job satisfaction. Third, structured career development pathways, including opportunities for training, specialization, and research engagement, may help reduce push factors for migration. Fourth, while financial incentives remain important, retention strategies should also address psychosocial workplace needs, including recognition, professional support, and work-life balance. Finally, because many respondents were early-career professionals, targeted retention strategies for younger healthcare workers may be especially important.

We acknowledge all healthcare workers who participated in the study, as well as our research assistants.

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.