Fighting and the use of abusive language often originate from conflicts between peers and unresolved misunderstandings. These behaviors can be associated with violence at home or in communities. From a psychological perspective, certain indisciplined behaviors like bullying have been linked to prolonged psychological effects on victims, including anxiety and depression ([44]). Alcohol abuse, cigarettes, and illicit drugs are other forms of indiscipline. Studies in Ghana have revealed that peer pressure, stress, and poor supervision play a significant role in the rising use of substances among adolescents ([20]). This attitude impedes academic performance and causes a rise in dropouts and involvement in criminal activities.

Disobeying teachers and people in authority in school indicates a greater decline in school discipline. Popular acts of indiscipline include verbal insults and failure to obey.

A second-year student from Seventh Day Adventist Senior High School at Bantama in the Ashanti Region went to school with a loaded gun and accidentally shot her classmate in the face ([28]).

A first-year student at Kinbu Senior High School in the Greater Accra Region was stabbed to death during a confrontation with a schoolmate. He died at the hospital due to the severity of the injuries ([49]).

Academic indiscipline among senior high school students comprises intentional behaviours that weaken the learning environment and institutional norms, such as truancy and refusal to complete assignments. Truancy is mainly associated with disengagement or external pressure and correlates with nonperformance in academic work and higher school dropout rates ([29]).

Cheating, facilitated by exam-centric cultures and technological equipment, mirrors individual strain ([21]) and structural breakdown in assessment design.

The West African Examination Council has been raising concerns about increased examination malpractice. In 2023, 18,504 students were engaged in various forms of misconduct and cheating ([2]).

Digital indiscipline among senior high school students includes behaviors such as cyberbullying and inappropriate use of social media during school hours, which interrupt teaching and learning and also cause unsafe environments.

Cyberbullying involves the use of any form of digital space to make life uncomfortable for others, mainly resulting in psychological and physical harm, leading to a decline in academic performance and suicide in extreme cases ([30]). The inappropriate use of social media during school hours, such as unapproved phone use in classrooms, accessing content that is not education-related, and recording others without their knowledge, weakens academic attention and discipline ([4]). The rate at which students become attached to social media platforms like TikTok, Instagram, Snapchat, X, Facebook, and WhatsApp disrupts students, limiting their engagement with academic work and increasing indisciplined behaviors.

A final-year student at Wa T. I. Ahmadiya Senior High School was stabbed with a knife after video recording a mate without seeking his consent ([48]).

2.4.1. Social Control Theory (SCT)

Indiscipline is likely to be observed when bonds crack. Hirschi classified social bonds into four major elements: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. This theory helps to understand the causes of indiscipline among Ghanaian senior high school students, particularly in less privileged schools, where students do not recognize the importance of establishing bonds (Figure 1).

The Role of Teacher-Student and Parent-Child Relationships. “Attachment” refers to the emotional bond students form with authority figures, such as teachers and parents. Students show signs of excellent behavior in school when positive relationships support them ([31]).

Students are likely to feel isolated from school authority figures, increasing the possibility of undisciplined behavior when students experience little or no bonding.

Figure 1.Conceptual framework for students’ behavior.

Educational Aspirations and Future Prospects. Commitment is the attachment students create to academic success, which is the only road to achieving success in the future. Students who understand that excelling academically is the only way to succeed are more likely to obey school rules and regulations ([31]). The increasing graduate unemployment rate in Ghana and the limited opportunities available for individuals with excellent academic achievements undermine students’ commitment to academic success ([60]). Students from low-income families, schools with inadequate resources, and those in rural communities doubt the need to work diligently for academic success, resulting in apathy and disengagement ([41]). Without clear motivation to obey school rules and regulations, students may put a premium on long-term gratification instead of rebelling against school authority.

Participation in school activities. Involvement is when students willingly participate in school activities such as sports, debate, clubs, or academic societies. Students who participate in extracurricular activities at school have limited time to engage in undisciplined behaviors ([31]). However, many schools focus much on classroom work, paying little attention to after-school activities due to a lack of resources or funding ([50]). In schools located in rural communities, students have inadequate options for productive engagement, which may lead to boredom and enough spare time that may be used to engage in misconduct ([12]). The Ghana education system’s overprioritization of examination success often neglects the need to encourage students to participate in nonacademic activities, further limiting their opportunities for good behavior.

2.4.2. Ecological Systems Theory (EST)

Ecological Systems Theory was developed by [17] in 1979. The theory details a comprehensive structure for understanding how various environmental layers mold student behavior, including school indiscipline. Bronfenbrenner posits that an embedded hierarchy of systems, extending from the immediate environment to a larger environment, influences individual growth. To properly understand misconduct among students, Ecological Systems Theory explains how the different ecological levels contribute to behavioral outcomes ([18]).

Immediate Environment. Bronfenbrenner states that this consists of direct exposure to students’ daily life, such as interactions with teachers, peers, and family members. Weak relationships between teachers and students, inhumane punishment, or peer influence can trigger indiscipline ([45]). Traditional methods of teaching, which are authoritarian, persist. This approach may provoke defiance, while unsupervised children at home may exhibit certain behaviors unacceptable to society.

Interconnections. Poor interaction between schools and families, such as poor parent-teacher relations, can cause barriers to enforcing discipline measures and enable poor behavior ([22]). Community involvement in education is traditional in Ghana. A decline in parental engagement in school administration may further erode behavior control.

External factors affect students indirectly. Some circumstances are beyond students’ control. Structures intended to promote development in society may unintentionally lead to adverse outcomes. Educational policies, school district policies, mass media, and employment opportunities all exert varying degrees of influence on students. Introducing the Free Senior Secondary School policy (FSHS) brought about overcrowding, resulting in teachers working extra hours to address the rising indiscipline among students ([36]).

2.4.3. Routine Activity Theory (RAT)

Routine Activity Theory can best explain how the environment and situational factors contribute to indiscipline among senior high school students. This theory states that unacceptable behaviors occur when three conditions are met: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardianship ([19]).

Motivated Offenders. Research revealed that students’ failure to engage in various authorized school activities is likely to shift their attention to indisciplined actions. A South African study by [33] showed that students struggling academically are more likely to be engaged in rioting, supporting Routine Activity Theory’s emphasis on offender motivation. A report by the Ghana Education Service in 2019 indicated that 62% of students who perform below academic standards are involved in indisciplined behaviors.

Suitable Targets. Multiple studies have revealed that school infrastructure has a greater impact on how students conduct themselves: insufficient lighting and poor security increase theft risk by reducing visibility and surveillance. Schools with fencing and inadequate street lighting are more likely to experience intruders, vandalism, and theft ([23]). This study confirms Astor et al.’s international findings that “hot spot” locations such as unsupervised bathrooms contributed to 68% of school indiscipline acts.

Absence of Guardianship. Poor supervision and the absence of security personnel or monitoring systems increase the risk of indiscipline among students ([58]). Schools in Ghana that are experiencing overcrowding struggle to monitor students’ behavior.

2.4.4. Strain Theory

The theory posits that misconduct arises when social systems create inconsistencies between the prescribed cultural norms and the necessary structures to achieve these goals ([38]). Individuals may intend to adopt illegitimate means, such as cheating and rebellion, to succeed when there are systematic obstacles to achieving success ([5]). This situation arises when schools lack adequate resources to meet the high expectations of students working hard to succeed in their academic endeavors, or when students do not possess the necessary skills and knowledge to succeed reasonably.

Examination malpractices keep rising, especially during the West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE), as students are expected to excel to gain admission into tertiary education amid inadequate teaching ([54]).

Everyday acts of indiscipline among senior high school students in Western countries include cyberbullying, substance abuse, and disrespect in the classroom ([42]). The digital revolution has amplified student misconduct worldwide, with social media enabling cyberbullying and classroom distractions. These challenges are primarily linked to the decline in teacher authority and the rise of social media’s influence on students’ behavior ([9]). Schools have adopted several measures to mitigate these challenges, such as restorative justice programs and mental health support policies. Strict school hierarchy and society’s expectation to perform academically create students who quietly isolate themselves from school activities and subsequently drop out ([32]).

Indiscipline in the Sub-Saharan region differs from that in other regions. Countries such as Kenya, Liberia, Zimbabwe, and Chad regard students’ truancy, resistance to traditional punishment, and exam malpractice as major misconduct ([57]). The problems manifesting in the Sub-Saharan region result from multiple factors, including overcrowded classrooms and dormitories, unqualified teachers, and contradictions between traditional and modern child protection laws ([35]).

Several factors, including sociocultural and economic changes, as well as shifts in educational policies, have influenced indiscipline in Ghanaian schools over the years.

Pre-independence education enforced strict discipline, often corporal punishment ([6]). Missionary schools were famous for their intolerance of indisciplined behavior. The education system in Ghana has continued to use these traditional punishment methods; however, schools have struggled to implement alternative disciplinary measures since the Ghana Education Service introduced a ban on corporal punishment in 2017 ([47]).

These behaviors weaken academic outcomes and school safety, necessitating urgent intervention.

Ghanaian senior high school students face multiple disciplinary obstacles, including truancy, substance abuse, disrespect towards authority figures, examination malpractice, and cyber misconduct. Truancy is primarily linked to students who feel disconnected from their school. These students prefer staying out of school. Substance abuse among senior high school students has increased dramatically. Alcohol, tramadol, and weed usage have skyrocketed due to peer pressure and stress ([10]). A significant cultural shift has emerged that places little priority on good behavior and rewards for positive conduct. Leaked exam papers originate from schools competing to increase or retain national recognition, creating pressure among students and teachers.

Poverty is one of the significant barriers to accessing education. Socioeconomic factors have a significant impact on how a student behaves. Truancy is commonly observed among students from low-income families, as students have to provide for their financial needs, thereby skipping school to engage in informal work ([3]). The inability of parents to provide learning materials for their children increases both frustration and disengagement. Urban communities have high divorce rates. This has brought about a decline in parental supervision, allowing children to live life unsupervised. Children are more likely to engage in undisciplined acts when not under parental control ([40]).

School-related factors such as teacher behavior, favoritism, and harsh criticism influence students’ behavior, which can cause them to isolate themselves from academic and extracurricular activities, potentially provoking them to engage in indisciplined acts ([61]). Free senior high school has resulted in classroom overcrowding, reducing teacher-student bonding and making it difficult for teachers to manage misconduct effectively. Schools lack the right approach to address misconduct after the ban on the traditional style of punishment ([35]). A culture of tolerating misbehavior, such as insult, theft, and truancy, has made indiscipline a norm. The sociocultural shift in the Ghanaian way of life has significantly diminished the emphasis on respect for authority among the youth, as communities now adopt a culture of individualism.

The emergence of smartphones and social media has worsened the challenges of indiscipline. Students do not perform well in class when they spend too much time on their phones instead of paying attention in the classroom during lessons ([24]).

Although various researchers have studied the prevalence and different forms of indiscipline in Sub-Saharan African schools ([35]; [3]), most available literature remains descriptive and is centered mainly on administrators or teachers.

There is little emphasis on the socio-ecological drivers, such as family background and school environment, influencing student indiscipline in Ghanaian senior high schools ([52]). More importantly, students’ voices are often not recognized when formulating school discipline policies, despite growing calls for inclusive and democratic school governance ([39]).

While restorative justice has gained traction internationally ([14]), its application in senior high schools in Africa remains underexplored, particularly in terms of feasibility and effectiveness compared to the punitive model ([59]). The literature also shows few studies that apply strong data-driven methodologies, such as correlation analysis and regression modelling, to evaluate the effect of indiscipline behaviors on academic performance and teacher well-being ([52]).

There are few studies on co-designed interventions involving various stakeholders, students, administrators, teachers, and parents within the Ghanaian context ([35]; [59]). This study addresses these gaps by combining qualitative insights with statistical analysis to provide a holistic, evidence-based understanding of the drivers, impacts, and reform opportunities related to student indiscipline.

This study explored senior high school students in Ghana using a two-phase mixed-methods sampling approach. In the quantitative phase, 20 public and private senior high schools were randomly selected across the 16 regions. Five students and two teachers from each school were surveyed.

For the qualitative phase, five well-disciplined students and five students known for indiscipline, alongside 10 teachers, five school administrators, and ten parents, were purposefully selected. Deliberate attempts were made to ensure gender balance and equitable representation of boarding, day, mixed, and single-sex schools, as well as urban and rural settings.

The survey instrument was theoretically grounded in four complementary frameworks, namely social control theory, ecological systems theory, routine activity theory, and strain theory. Each framework was operationalized through multiple Likert-scale items adapted from prior empirical studies and contextualized to the Ghanaian senior high school environment.

Social Control Theory was operationalized using four constructs:

Attachment. This measures the relationships that exist between teachers and students, as well as parental closeness.

Commitment. This is the measurement of the perceived future benefits of education and the assessment of academic aspiration.

Involvement. This concerns engagement in after-school activities and respect for school rules.

Ecological Systems Theory was measured across environmental levels. Microsystem variables captured peer influence and teacher behavior; mesosystem variables assessed parent-school communication; exosystem variables reflected school overcrowding and policy effects related to the Free Senior High School program; and macrosystem variables measured perceptions of national discipline policies and sociocultural norms.

Routine Activity Theory was operationalized through items measuring motivated offender characteristics (academic disengagement and boredom), suitable targets (availability of digital devices and unsecured school spaces), and absence of capable guardianship (levels of supervision, security presence, and monitoring systems).

Strain Theory was captured through items assessing academic pressure, examination stress, perceived inequality of opportunity, and resource inadequacy, leading to behaviors such as cheating, truancy, and defiance.

This theoretically grounded operationalization strengthened construct validity by ensuring that the survey items directly reflected the study’s conceptual framework.

Quantitative data were collected using in-person, paper-based questionnaires administered during school hours. This method was selected to maximize response rates and minimize non-response bias, particularly given uneven internet access across schools.

Qualitative data were gathered through face-to-face semi-structured interviews conducted in designated quiet spaces within school premises for students, teachers, and administrators, and in participants’ homes or agreed locations for parents. Interviews lasted between 25 and 40 minutes and were audio-recorded with participants’ consent.

Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS to generate descriptive statistics, correlation coefficients, and multiple regression models. Regression analyses controlled for student age, gender, school type, boarding status, and self-reported socioeconomic background.

Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis following Braun and Clarke’s six-phase framework ([16]). The analysis was conducted manually, beginning with open coding of transcripts, followed by axial coding to generate themes. Manual coding allowed close engagement with participant narratives and contextual sensitivity.

Document analysis covered three consecutive academic years (2021/2022, 2022/2023, 2023/2024) prior to the data collection period to identify behavioral trends.

Written and verbal consent were secured from teachers, administrators, and parents. Verbal consent was witnessed and formally recorded for student participants. All participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any time. Data confidentiality and anonymity were maintained throughout the study.

The students’ and teachers’ survey data show that peer pressure and family background are the main drivers of indiscipline.

The students’ responses from Figure 2 highlight the most common misconduct. The use of smartphones and unauthorized devices tops the chart, showing that the majority of students no longer obey the “no phone” rule.

Pearson correlation analysis found a moderate positive link between poor parental supervision and truancy (r = 0.42, p < 0.01). Multiple regression modeling also showed that peer influence (β = 0.38, p < 0.01) and low parental involvement (β = 0.27, p < 0.05) were significant predictors of indiscipline, explaining about 41% of the variance (R² = 0.41).

Administrators backed up these findings by showing us lists of students caught cheating during examinations and records of confiscated unapproved devices. Parents talked about their experiences, a parent said, “I was called to a meeting because my daughter fought with a teacher.” These events show how complicated it is for schools and families to affect students’ behavior.

Figure 2.Revealed prevalent misconducts.

There is a weak but significant link between frequently using corporal punishment and committing the same offense (r = 0.24,p< 0.05). It suggests that, while punishment may make students obey the rules in the short term, it may not stop them from breaking them again. Administrators stated that policies have been implemented without significant involvement from parents or students, resulting in reduced effectiveness. As shown in Table 1, Interviews showed that most parents were content with corporal punishment and agreed it is the best way to enforce discipline. However, none of the parents knows about restorative justice. Administrators said they were open to using restorative methods to address problems like bullying and theft.

Table 1. Average total number of punishments, and types of punishment per year.

Note:Year 1 represents the 2021/2022 academic year, Year 2 represents the 2022/2023 academic year, and Year 3 represents the 2023/2024 academic year. Data were extracted from official school disciplinary records covering three consecutive academic years preceding the 2024/2025 academic year.

Document analysis of school records showed a consistent trend: students involved in repeated disciplinary infractions often had lower academic performance over the three years studied (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Average end of term examination results (1^st year-3^rd year).

Teachers admitted to providing less academic support to students who repeatedly violate school rules. They acknowledged “teacher burnout” caused by frequent student indiscipline, a finding corroborated by a positive correlation between teacher stress and time spent on discipline (r = 0.47, p < 0.01).

Parental responses aligned with these findings. Parents indicated that they had to hire private tutors to compensate for missed lessons due to truancy, emphasizing the socioeconomic costs of indiscipline.

Teachers admitted that positive relationships between teachers and students could help reduce indiscipline. The teachers agreed that school rules should be enforced strictly and that parents should be more involved in disciplinary matters. Most teachers (73%) indicated they had already participated in discussions about discipline policies and were willing to work with students and parents to create policies to promote good behavior.

Regression modelling showed that a favorable relationship between teachers and students could reduce indiscipline by up to 25%. Students wanted to be involved in creating school rules; most students (85%) said they were willing to support making the rules, and 83% thought the rules were stringent and outdated, especially regarding cell phone use. “It is 2025; why are we not allowed to use our phones?” one student asked.

Forty percent of administrators asked for more school counsellors; another 40% suggested that the Ghana Education Service (GES) lead workshops on non-punitive discipline techniques. According to 66% of teachers, extracurricular activities are essential for keeping students busy and avoiding indisciplined behavior. Some documented school initiatives included getting students to help each other, encouraging parents to visit the school, and making Parent Teacher Association (PTA) activities more welcoming.

The study shows that indiscipline in Ghanaian senior high schools is a complicated problem caused by social, family, and school factors. Regression analysis showed that peer pressure and poor parental involvement are two statistically significant factors that lead to indisciplined behavior. Students’ behavior supports Bronfenbrenner’s idea that multiple systems shape behavior.

The qualitative data show that school hierarchies, bullying, and poor supervision at home lead to indiscipline. These studies support earlier ones that state peer acceptance of bad behavior and weak institutional control are significant issues in teen education ([56]).

The study shows that schools still use corporal punishment, warning notices, and suspensions, even though they do not produce the desired outcome. The fact that punishment leads to repeat offenses suggests that these methods do not change behavior; they respond to it.

Teachers and parents do not know much about restorative justice. However, administrators said they wanted to use restorative practices more because there is a gap between institutional interest and implementation capacity, a systemic barrier that needs to be fixed through structured reforms, such as GES-led restorative justice training programs.

Regression and document analysis show that undisciplined students perform poorly in school. Some students have a harder time getting assistance because teachers only help well-behaved students. Teacher burnout, caused by the time spent enforcing discipline, affects teaching time and the quality of teaching.

This finding is similar to concerns worldwide that teachers will leave and not want to work at schools where misconduct is rampant ([51]). It makes emotional exhaustion even worse when dealing with bad behavior without enough help from the school.

Stakeholders mentioned that they support participatory ways of handling discipline. Teachers, administrators, students, and parents agreed that changes need to be made, but they need to be made involving all parties. Regression models show that even small changes in how teachers and students get along could lead to a significant shift in behavior. Let students help make rules because they want them to be fair and proper, specifically about cell phones. Initiatives that could make schools more welcoming and respectful are suggested by administrators, such as hiring more counselors and giving them more training.