In our previous articles, we followed the standard paradigm of “Dark Matter”, which is not appropriate within the framework of WUC. Instead, WUC posits that the World consists solely of particles of Ordinary Matter—protons, electrons, photons, and neutrinos—and a distinct class of particles created by the EternalUniverse itself. These particles, called Universe-Created Particles(UCPs), constitute a new type of Universe-Created Matter(UCM).

3.1.1. Universe-Created Particles

In2024,we introduced the term UCPs, which possess the following key characteristics:

They can be fermions(UCFs) or bosons.Their rest energies are given in Table 1.They interact via the weak interaction.They undergo self-annihilation, similar to Majorana fermions.Ordinary particles are produced as byproducts of UCPs self-annihilation.

This framework allows an easy conceptual transition from traditional Dark(D)Matter to Universe-Created(UC)Matter as used in WUC.

Table 1. Universe-created particles.

In this table, the Basic Energy Unit

where h is the Planck constant, c is a gravitodynamic constant, a is a basic length unit, and α is the dimensionless Rydberg constant [1].

3.1.2. Optical Invisibility vs. Multi-wavelength Observability

These Universe-Created particles are “dark” only in the narrow sense that they are optically invisible when observed through telescopes using visible light. However, modern astronomy spans wavelengths from radio to gamma rays, and in this broader context, UCM is not “dark” at all.

The diversity of non-optical observations supports this view [12]:

Cygnus X-1 (1971), the first known X-ray binary, is a persistent bright source of hard X-rays up to60keV.In 2000, R. Minchin et al. discovered the binary galaxy system VIRGOHI21-NGC4254, exhibiting strong 21-cm radio emission.

3.1.3. Two Origins of Radiation in the World

WUC distinguishes the radiation of Ordinary Matter from that of Universe-Created Matter:

1)Ordinary Matter radiates electromagneticwaves—from radio to X-rays—through electrons outside nuclei.

2)Universe-Created Matter radiates gamma rays, emitted by nuclei as a result of UCPs self-annihilation. Their rest energies span eighteen orders of magnitude (Table 1), producing a wide variety of gamma-ray signatures.

3.1.4. Purpose of the Multicomponent UCM System

This multicomponent UCM system was introduced to explain:

The diversity of Very High Energy gamma-ray sources observed in the Visible World.The diversity of UCM cores in Macroobjects—Superclusters, Galaxies, and Extra-Solar Systems (ESS)—which in WUC function as Fermion Compact Objects and UCM Reactors.

Because UCPs carry no electric charge, their masses cannot be directly measured through mass spectrometry. They can only be detected indirectly via their annihilation signatures.

3.1.5. Observable Signatures of UCP Self-Annihilation

Expected rest energies from UCPs self-annihilation include: 1.3 TeV; 9.6 GeV; 70 MeV; 340 keV; 3.7 keV; and 0.2 eV. These energies appear in:

The spectra of the diffuse gamma-ray background.Emissions from various Macroobjects throughout the World.

We associate these observed gamma-ray features with the internal structure of Macroobjects—their nuclei and shell compositions. Different combinations of UCPs naturally yield a corresponding diversity of gamma-ray lines. Thus, within WUC, the observed richness of Very High Energy gamma-ray sources receives a coherent and natural explanation.

It is worth noting that the rest-energy values of the UCPs, E UCP , were selected in WUC in 2013 on the basis of experimental results from gamma-ray astronomy [7]. Remarkably, these values are well approximated by the relation E UCP = α n E 0 , where n = − 2 , ⋯ , 6 (see Table 1).

In WUC, the Macrostructures of the World—Superclusters, Galaxies, and Extrasolar Systems (ESS)—contain nuclei composed of UCFs, surrounded by nested shells made of UCM and Baryonic Matter. These shells are arranged concentrically, like a Russian doll. Their structure follows a simple principle:

The lighter the particle, the larger the radius and the greater the mass of its shell.The heaviest particles occupy the innermost shells, the lightest form the outermost layers.

A proposed weak interaction among UCPs maintains the structural integrity of all shells. Table 2 summarizes the parameters of Macroobject (MO) Cores, modeled as 3D viscous fluid spheres whose high effective viscosity allows them to behave as solid-state objects.

3.2.1. Shell Composition and Macroobject Types

Based on the calculated parameters, WUC predicts the following internal structures of macroobjects:

Table 2.Parameters of MO cores composed of different fermions (Present Epoch).

Cores of stars in extrasolar systemsconsist of UCF1 and/or UCF2 nuclei.Galactic cores contain UCF1/UCF2 nuclei with shells of UCF3 and/or electron-positron plasma.Cores of superclusters contain UCF1/UCF2 nuclei, surrounded by successive shells of UCF3 and UCF4.

Accordingly, Galactic cores are interpreted in WUC as Supermassive Compact Objects(SMCOs) composed of UCF1 and/or UCF2, surrounded by an outer UCF3 shell. Their maximum mass, derived from the parameters listed in Table 2, is approximately

Remarkably, this theoretical upper limit is consistent with observational data for the most massive known dark compact object: a central mass of the quasar TON 618 [13].

A major recent observational milestone, highlighted as “The Biggest Breakthroughs in Physics:2025”, is the work titled “A Direct Black Hole Mass Measurement in a Little Red Dot at the Epoch of Reionization” by I. Juodžbali et al. [14]. In the abstract of the article, the authors wrote:

We report the direct,dynamical Black Hole(BH)mass measurement in a strongly lensed Little Red Dot(LRD)atz=7.04. The combination of lensing with deep spectroscopic data reveals arotation curvethat is inconsistent with a nuclear star cluster yet can be well explained by Keplerian rotation around a point mass of50million Solar masses,consistent with virial BH mass estimates from the Balmer lines. The Keplerian rotation leaves little room for any stellar component in a host galaxy,as we conservatively infer M B H / M ⊙ > 2 . Such a“naked”black hole,together with its near-pristine environment,indicates that this LRD is a massive black hole seed caught in its earliest accretion phase.

Within the framework of WUC, this object is not a black hole. Instead, it is naturally interpreted as a rotating SMCO, composed of UCF1 and/or UCF2 nuclei and surrounded by an outer UCF3 shell, observed prior to detonation during its accretion phase.

It is essential to emphasize that WUC contains no black holes. Observational phenomena commonly attributed to black holes are instead interpreted as manifestations of UCM-based Supermassive Compact Objects governed by the physical principles of WUC.

3.2.2. Empirical Confirmation of WUC Predictions

The 2020Nobel Prize in Physics—awarded to R. Genzel and A. Ghez for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the center of the Milky Way—provides strong observational support for a key prediction of WUC first stated in 2013: “Macroobjects of the World have cores made up of the discussed DM(UCM)particles. Other particles,including DM(UCM)and baryonic matter,form shells surrounding the cores” [7]. This structure, now supported by precise stellar-orbit measurements, remains a fundamental and distinctive component of the WUC framework [15].

The Angular Momentum problem is one of the most critical unresolved issues in the Standard Cosmological Model. Any viable theory of cosmic evolution must explain the origin and conservation of angular momentum across all scales. To the best of our knowledge, WUC is the only existing cosmological model fully consistent with the Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum.

To satisfy this requirement, a cosmological model must answer the following fundamental questions:

How did Galaxies and Extrasolar Systems(ESS) acquire their substantial orbital and rotational angular momenta?How did the Milky Way(MW) galaxy give birth to numerous ESS at different cosmological times?If MW is approximately as old as the World itself, what is the origin of its enormous orbital and rotational angular momenta? A discussion of the Beginning of MW is required.Why is the oldest known star in MW—Methuselah—nearly as old as the Universe?The Solar System formed 4.57 Byr ago. What is the origin of its rotational and orbital angular momenta?

This requires addressing the Beginning of the Solar System.

3.3.1. Rotational Fission as the Source of Angular Momentum

In our view, there is only one physical mechanism capable of imparting angular momentum to Macroobjects (MOs): Rotational Fission of overspinning Prime Objects, whose equatorial surface velocities exceed their escape velocities.

According to the Fission Model:

A Prime Object transfers part of its rotational angular momentum to the orbital and rotational angular momenta of the objects formed from it.Consequently, the rotational angular momentum of the Prime Object must exceed the total orbital angular momenta of its satellites [12].

3.3.2. Prime Objects in WUC and the Dark Epoch

Within WUC, Prime Objects are UCM Cores of Superclusters, which must accumulate enormous angular momenta before the birth of the Luminous World. This requires a sufficiently long preparatory phase.

We designate this interval as the Dark Epoch, and it forms the basis of the New Cosmology in WUC:

Dark(Invisible)Epoch—lasting from the Beginning of the World 14.22 Byr ago for 0.45 Byr, when only UCM Macroobjects existed.Luminous Epoch—beginning 13.77 Byr ago (for the Laniakea Supercluster) and continuing to the present, during which Luminous Macroobjects emerged through the ExplosiveVolcanic Rotational Fission of Supercluster UCM Cores and through UCPs self-annihilation.

3.3.3. Transfer of Angular Momentum in WUC

The UCM Cores of major Superclusters are the primary engines of the Visible World: during the Dark Epoch they accumulated vast masses and rotational angular momenta, which were subsequently transferred to the UCM Cores of Galaxies during their Rotational Fission.Observationally, the majority of galaxies are disk galaxies, strongly suggesting a rotationally driven formation mechanism consistent with Rotational Fission.The UCM Core of the Milky Way was created 13.77 Byr ago as a direct result of Rotational Fission of the Virgo supercluster’s UCM Core.UCM Cores of ESS, planets, and moons formed through repeated Rotational Fissions of Galactic UCM Cores at different cosmological times—e.g., 4.57 Byr ago for the Solar System within MW.

3.3.4. Top-Down Formation of Structure in WUC

In WUC, Macroobjects form in a hierarchical top-down sequence:

1) Superclusters;

2) Galaxies;

3) Extrasolar Systems;

4) Planets;

5) Moons.

This structure arises naturally from cascading Rotational Fissions of increasingly smaller UCM Cores, propagating the transfer and conservation of angular momentum throughout the World.

3.4.1. Macroobjects Cores

Coresof all Macroobjectsshare a common set of fundamental properties:

Core-Shell Structure:

The nuclei of all MOs are composed of Universe-Created Fermions (UCFs).

These nuclei are surrounded by concentric shells containing Universe-Created Matter (UCM) and Baryonic Matter.

Continuous UCPs Absorption and Matter Production:

Universe-Created Particles (UCPs) are continuously absorbed by the cores of all MOs. Ordinary Matter, comprising approximately 7.2% of total matter (4.8% in the Cosmic Medium and 2.4% in MOs), is produced as a byproduct of UCPs self-annihilation and is continuously re-emitted by MOs cores. Consequently, MOs cores function as UCM Reactors, fueled by UCPs.

All chemical elements, compositions, and radiative outputs are generated in situ through UCPs self-annihilation within UCM cores.

Time Evolution of Nuclei and Shells:

Both nuclei and shells grow with the absolute cosmological timeτ:

Growth continues until a critical stability threshold is reached, at which point the system undergoes detonation.

3.4.2. Detonation and Satellite Formation

OverspinningUCM Cores:

At the critical point, overspinning UCM cores undergo detonation. This process releases satellite cores, together with their orbital ( L orb ) and rotational ( L rot ) angular momenta.

Nature of Detonation:

The detonation does not destroy the parent core. Instead, it manifests as a gravitational hyper-flare, ejecting satellite UCM cores while preserving the integrity of the prime object.

Origin of Diversity:

The size, mass, composition, and angular momenta ( L orb , L rot ) of satellite UCM cores depend on:

local density fluctuations at the edge of the prime UCM core, andthe cohesion properties of its outer shell.

This naturally explains the observed diversity of satellite Macroobjects.

Volcanic Ejection Mechanism:

Satellite UCM cores are expelled through localized eruptive regions—”volcanoes”—on the surfaces of prime UCM cores. These eruptions occur recurrently and drive hierarchical structure formation. Within WUC, this explosive process in prime UCM cores is termed a Gravitational Burst(GB), by analogy with a gamma-ray burst. In the WUC framework, such GB events may constitute the physical origin of the gravitational waves observed experimentally.

3.4.3. Repeating Gravitational Bursts

In the WUC framework, recurrent GBs arise naturally through the following cycle:

During each GB, a prime UCM core loses a small fraction of its mass but a large fraction of its rotational angular momentum.After the GB, the core resumes absorbing UCPs:

until the next stability threshold is reached and another GB occurs.

This cyclic process explains why:satellite UCM cores rotate about their own axes, andsatellites orbit the UCM cores of their prime objects.

3.4.4. Afterglow Phenomena

General Afterglow:

The afterglow of GB is produced by post-detonation processes within the nuclei and shells of UCM cores.

Extrasolar Systems:

In ESS, the stellar wind is the afterglow of a star’s UCM core detonation. The core continues to absorb UCPs, increasing its mass ( ∝ τ 3 / 2 ), while excess rotational angular momentum is shed through wind particles.

Solar System: The solar wind represents the afterglow of the Solar UCM core detonation 4.57 Byr ago, continuously forming the heliosphere(solar bubble).Galaxies:

In galaxies, galactic winds are the afterglow of repeated galactic UCM core detonations. In the Milky Way, this process continuously sustains the two UCM Fermi Bubbles.

In WUC, the Hubble parameter is not a constant but depends explicitly on cosmological time:

This implies that earlier epochs correspond to larger values of H .

As a result, the value of the Hubble parameter must be inferred from observables that probe the CosmicMedium itself, rather than from properties of individual Macroobjects. The Cosmic Microwave Background(CMB)Radiationuniquely satisfies this requirement, as it reflects the properties of the homogeneous and isotropic Cosmic Medium. Figure 3 presents recent determinations of H 0 using CMBdata only.

Figure 3. Recent H 0 determinations based exclusively on CMB data. Adapted from [17].

Within the WUC framework, the Hubble Tension arises naturally due to the following factors:

All determinations of the Hubble constant are model-dependent.The available statistics are insufficient to justify averaging disparate measurements into a single universal value. Hubble’s law, as used in Standard Cosmology, is valid only within BBM, where all galaxies originate from a single initial singularity—an assumption explicitly rejected by WUC.Observational samples include galaxies belonging to different superclusters, which formed at different cosmological times.Since H = τ − 1 , the value of H must, in principle, be different for each galaxy, depending on its distance and corresponding cosmological time.Averaging values of H across different methods and objects—as commonly done—has no physical justification in WUC.The only physically meaningful determination of H is one based on CMB observations.

The fundamental differences between BBM and WUC may be summarized as follows.

4.3.1. Initial Conditions

BBM:

Postulates an initial spacetime singularity characterized by infinite energy density and an extremely rapid early expansion (inflation). Within this framework, the three-dimensional universe has no center of expansion.

WUC:

Proposes that a fluctuation within the Eternal Universe gave rise to a four-dimensional Nucleus of the World, whose extrapolated initial radius equals the fundamental length unit a. The Nucleus expands along the fourth spatial dimension at the speed c, interpreted as a gravitodynamic constant. This expansion produces a uniform stretching of its hyperspherical boundary—the World in WUC—thereby accounting for cosmic expansion without invoking Dark Energy.

4.3.2. Structure of the World

BBM:

Assumes an almost infinite universe that is homogeneous and isotropic on large scales, centered conceptually around the initial singularity.

WUC:

Describes a Finite Boundless World—the Hypersphere of the 4D Nucleus, constituting an Absolute Space. The Visible World, which is a 3D Hubble Bubble, is a Patchwork Quilt composed of major luminous superclusters ( ≳ 10 3 ) that emerged in different regions of the World at different cosmological epochs.

4.3.3. Medium of the World

BBM:

Commonly implies a vacuum-like state for the early universe, with matter and radiation emerging later.

WUC:

Introduces a Cosmic Medium composed of protons, electrons, photons, neutrinos, and Universe-Created Particles(UCPs), previously referred to as “Dark Matter Particles”. This Medium is homogeneous and isotropic, whereas the distribution of Macroobjects (MOs) is spatially inhomogeneous, anisotropic, and temporally non-simultaneous.

The rejection of the luminiferous aether in 1905 marked a pivotal moment in Classical Physics; however, the Cosmic Medium of WUC may be viewed as a modern, physically grounded revival of this concept—one that restores consistency to Classical Physics rather than undermining it.

4.3.4. Conservation Laws

BBM:

Does not explicitly address the physical mechanism responsible for the creation of angular momentum, nor does it embed angular momentum conservation as a foundational principle.

WUC:

Uniquely provides a physical mechanism for the creation of angular momentum and is fully consistent with the fundamental law of its conservation.

4.3.5. Macroobject Formation

BBM:

Assumes hierarchical formation proceeding bottom-up, from extrasolar systems to galaxies and subsequently to superclusters.

WUC:

Proposes a top-down formation scenario, in which superclusters form first and subsequently fragment into galaxies and extrasolar systems (ESS). This process occurs via Explosive Volcanic Rotational Fission of overspinning major supercluster cores composed of UCPs. These cores were created by the Eternal Universe during the Dark (invisible) Epoch lasting approximately 0.45 Byr (for LSC). Importantly, the formation of galaxies and ESS is not a completed process of the distant past but is ongoing.

4.3.6. Summary

WUC offers a fundamentally different physical picture of the World compared to BBM. It challenges long-standing assumptions and provides new perspectives on cosmology and Classical Physics. While BBM is primarily mathematical in construction, WUC is grounded in physical mechanisms. Both models may initially appear extraordinary; however, a critical distinction remains: BBM fails to explain a growing body of observational evidence produced by modern astronomy—including results from the James Webb Space Telescope—whereas WUC claims natural consistency with these observations.

Ultimately, the validity of any cosmological hypothesis rests on experimental verification. As R. Feynman famously stated: “It does not make any difference how beautiful your guess is,it does not make any difference how smart you are,who made the guess,or what his name is. If it disagrees with experiment,it is wrong. That is all there is to it”.

The formation of ancient galaxies has long been one of the central problems in cosmology. Based on measurements of CMB, the age of the Universe is estimated to be 13.77 ± 0.06 Byr. Astronomers estimate the age of our own MW galaxy to be approximately 13.6 Byr. The Milky Way is one of the two largest spiral galaxies in the Local Group, the other being the Andromeda Galaxy.

Within the framework of BBM, massive, dynamically mature disk galaxies such as MW are not expected to form so early. Their existence therefore places severe constraints on standard galaxy formation scenarios.

4.4.1. Distance Determination and Redshift Measurements

Distances to remote astronomical objects beyond nearby galaxies are inferred primarily through measurements of cosmological redshift. A crucial distinction must be made between spectroscopic redshifts and photometric redshift estimates. Spectroscopic redshifts, obtained by identifying spectral lines, are conventionally regarded as definitive distance measurements. In contrast, photometric redshifts—derived from broadband photometry—identify candidate distant sources and carry significantly larger uncertainties.

4.4.2. JWST High-Redshift Galaxy Discoveries

In our 2024 article “JWST Discoveries and the Hypersphere World-Universe Model: Transformative New Cosmology” [1], we discussed galaxies with redshifts z > 10 . Table 3 and Table 4 present the latest JWST results, adapted from [18].

The existence of such galaxies at these epochs—only a few hundred million years after the Big Bang—poses a profound challenge to standard cosmological timelines. According to BBM-based models, there has been insufficient time for the formation, assembly, and dynamical relaxation of massive, rotationally supported disk galaxies with mature stellar populations.

Table 3. Most distant galaxies with spectroscopic redshift determinations.

Table 4. Notable candidates for most distant galaxies.

4.4.3. The Growing Cosmological Crisis

These observations reinforce the conclusion that the current cosmological paradigm is under severe stress. The early emergence of massive, well-organized galaxies, the Hubble tension, and the discovery of extremely large-scale structures collectively suggest that a fundamentally different physical framework—such as that proposed by World-Universe Cosmology—may be required to interpret the data.

Within the framework of World-Universe Cosmology (WUC), the recent JWST discoveries follow naturally and require no ad hoc modifications to the theory [1]. The key points are summarized below.

4.5.1. Cosmological Timing and the Dark Epoch

The apparent paradox posed by extremely early galaxies is fundamentally a question of timing. In WUC, the Beginning of the World occurred 14.22Byr ago. The initial Dark Epoch, during which only UCM macroobjects existed, lasted approximately 0.45Byr. The Luminous Epoch began thereafter and has persisted for the past 13.77Byr. Consequently, galaxies observed by JWST at very high redshifts formed after the transition to the Luminous Epoch and therefore are not “premature” within WUC temporal framework.

4.5.2. Absence of Protogalaxies

Early galaxies emerged in near-present configurations as a direct consequence of the transition from the Dark Epoch to the Luminous Epoch. This transition occurred via Explosive Volcanic Rotational Fission of overspinning UCM major supercluster cores, accompanied by the self-annihilation of Universe-Created Particles(UCPs). Ordinary matter is a byproduct of this self-annihilation process. As a result, protogalaxies do not exist in the World, and therefore JWST does not observe them. This observational absence, which is problematic for Standard Cosmology, is a natural and expected outcome of WUC.

4.5.3. Formation of Compact Disk Galaxies

Compact disk galaxies formed through rotational fission of overspinning UCM supercluster cores. Each such galaxy contains a single UCM core. Because galaxy formation proceeded through fission rather than hierarchical merging, frequent early mergers are not expected. This explains why JWST observes dynamically mature, rotationally supported disk galaxies at extremely high redshifts.

4.5.4. Resolution of the Standard Cosmology Paradox

In Standard Cosmology, massive, mature disk galaxies with masses up to

cannot form within the available time span of 100-290Myr after the Big Bang, as their assembly is assumed to require several billion years. Such galaxies therefore should not exist at the beginning of the Universe. In contrast, WUC predicts their existence and maturity at early epochs, fully consistent with JWST observations.

4.5.5. Future Confirmation of Extreme Redshift Candidates

We anticipate that candidate galaxies with extreme redshifts, potentially reaching z ~ 32 , will be confirmed through future spectroscopic measurements. Their verification depends critically on spectroscopic redshift determination. It is important to emphasize a remarkable implication of WUC: while JWST is now observing the earliest and most distant galaxies, we ourselves reside in one of the earliest galaxies—the Milky Way.

This coherence between theory and observation underscores the explanatory power of World-Universe Cosmology in addressing the growing body of JWST data that challenges the foundations of Standard Cosmology.

Strong empirical support for the World-Universe Cosmology interpretation emerges from the recent series of papers entitled “Strong Progenitor Age Bias in Supernova Cosmology” [19]. These studies demonstrate that the luminosities of Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) depend significantly on the age of their progenitor systems, introducing a previously unrecognized and substantial systematic bias into supernova-based cosmology.

4.6.1. Progenitor Age Bias in Type Ia Supernovae

As summarized by J. Son et al. [19]:

Supernova cosmology assumes that the luminosity standardization of Type Ia SNe is invariant with progenitor age. However,direct measurements of host-galaxy ages reveal a highly significant(5.5σ) correlationbetween standardized SN magnitude and progenitor age. This bias is not corrected by the commonly used mass-step method. After accounting for this effect, SN data align with BAO and CMB resultsfrom DESI. Combining SNe,BAO,and CMB reveals(>9σ)tension with the ΛCDM model,suggesting a time-varying dark-energy equation of state in acurrently non-accelerating universe.

4.6.2. Resolution within World-Universe Cosmology

Within the WUC framework, these results are not indicative of a crisis but rather a natural consequence of applying an inappropriate constant- H framework to a Universe, in which the expansion rate depends explicitly on cosmological time. WUC predicts that measurements of the Hubble parameter derived from macroobject-based observations—such as SNe Ia—will vary due to the spatial inhomogeneity, anisotropy, and temporal non-simultaneity of luminous structures. In contrast, measurements based on the Cosmic Microwave Background, which probes the homogeneous and isotropic Cosmic Medium, yield a consistent and physically meaningful value of the expansion rate.