White-tail deer ranching is already well-established in the Northwestern and Midwestern parts of the United States [15] [16]. The North American Deer Farmers Association publishes a list of breeding stock animals for sale, along with detailed guidance for raising deer and selling deer meat [16]. The benefits of raising deer for the rancher are that the animals mature quickly and begin reproducing in two years. Their reproductive life can last 20 years, and a lucrative market for deer by-products such as antlers and hides is already present in the US. Thus, their increased presence in the Virginia Highlands should be beneficial both for incoming American migrants and for the farmers who engage in deer ranching.

Deer are natural foragers and do very well in silvoculture environments; they consume a variety of grasses, bushes, and weeds. Because of their intensive grazing habits, it is important to rotate the deer herd across three or more pastures per year; this gives the grazed area a chance to recover its vegetation. During colder weather, the deer need to be provided with hay and/or grain to maintain their weight. They should also be provided with a sturdy, three-sided shelter for cold or rainy weather. A photograph of a deer shelter is shown below in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Deer shelter.

Deer do best in herds of 30 or more animals; this helps them create a since of community. Females and their young usually group themselves together, while the males form their own separate group. Fencing for deer herds must be a minimum of eight feet high and made of heavy grade wire. Wooden corner posts should be used to support the fencing and need to be at least 5 inches in diameter and set into the ground at least 3 feet deep. It is also useful to place canvas along the fence line to prevent the deer from searching for potential predators. This also helps prevent predators from seeing the deer [15].

Deer prefer to live and graze on high, mountainous terrain, making them an ideal food species for the Climate Change Haven Communities in Appalachia [15]. Figure 10 below shows deer in a fenced silvoculture setting.

Figure 10. Deer in a silvoculture ranch setting.

Elk (Wapiti) are the largest members of the deer family in North America. Once an abundant game species throughout Appalachia, they were hunted to extinction by the 1800s [11]. However, over the past 50 years there has been a resurgence of commercial elk ranching, especially in the western US. Elk prefer temperate weather and have proven to be quite content in a silvoculture ranch environment. Thus, it should not be difficult to establish domesticated elk herds suitable as food sources for the Climate Change Haven Communities in the Virginia Highlands Region.

Elk become sexually mature at 15 - 27 months of age. Adult males weigh between 420 - 600 kg, while females range from 220 - 320 kg. Breeding stock is available from the ranches associated with the North American Elk Breeders Association, which covers both the United States and Canada [11]. The grazing requirements of elk are much more eco-sustainable than those of cattle. The acreage required for one grazing cow will support three female elk [11].

In addition, elk are accustomed to agroforestry settings in which meadows are interspersed with forests and do not require additional medical or nutritional supplements, because this is their natural habitat [11]. Adult elk herds need to have an exterior fence of at least 8 feet; welded wire with deep wooden posts is the recommended fencing system. Fortunately, once they are accustomed to their fenced range and supplied with fresh water and weather shelters, elk are usually content and do not often attempt to escape their pastures [11]. Figure 11 below shows an adult male elk in an appropriately-fenced silvoculture pasture.

Figure 11. Adult male elk in an appropriately fenced silvoculture pasture.

It is truly one of the great ironies of American history that at the outset of the 1800s, there were an estimated 60,000,000 bison in the country. But by the mid to late 1800s the number of bison had plummeted to only 20,000 remaining animals due to over-hunting and the expansion of American cattle ranches across the Midwest and Northwest regions of the country [17]. Fortunately, by the early 1900s US conservation groups began efforts to restore this species which had become celebrated in American folklore as symbols of the “taming of the west” [18]. The bison, much like the American Indians shown in Figure 12 below are symbolic also of the tragic consequences of “modern civilization” and “industrialization” [19].

Figure 12. Indigenous Americans hunted buffalo/bison using only bows, arrows and spears.

Bison are well-suited for a silvoculture setting. They eat a variety of wild grasses, weeds and forbs. They are resistant to heat and drought and their shaggy winter coats protect them from extremely cold temperatures. Once provided with a suitable area in which to graze, they seldom try to escape [16].

Bison are “roamers” and require a large grazing area. This area should be enclosed using wire fencing at least 6 feet high. The females can produce calves at the age of two years and continue reproducing into their twenties. It is recommended that herd size be 30 bison or above in order to give the animals a sense of safety [16]. Figure 13 below shows a bison herd in a silvopasture setting.

Figure 13. Bison grazing in a silvoculture setting.

Because human populations residing in Climate Change Haven Communities throughout the Virginia Highlands will be depending primarily on locally-grown sources of meat, it is necessary to prevent wild predators from entering the silvoculture-agroforestry game and cattle ranches. Wolves, cougars and coyotes can be kept out of the grazing areas surrounding each Climate Change Haven Community using methods recommended by the US Department of Agriculture [20].

Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) is a transmissible form of spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) causing neurologic disease in mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, and moose. It is caused by an infectious prion. CWD is fatal in all cases.

Clinical signs of CWD include decreased control of body movements and wide-based stances, head tremors, or carrying the head and ears lowered. Affected animals may walk in repetitive courses, sleep for excessively long periods of time, or be found near water sources or in riparian areas. Transmission occurs directly through contact with an infected animal or indirectly through contact with a contaminated environment. There are no treatments available [21]-[24]. Therefore, it is important that fences be well-maintained to prevent wild deer, elk and bison from entering the grazing areas of Climate Change Haven Community deer, elk and bison herds.

There are seven sheep breeds which are currently accustomed to temperate climates and can be successfully raised as meat-providing animals in a silvoculture environment. Each of these is discussed below. Existing stocks of some of these breeds are already present in the Virginia Highlands. These can be enlarged by increasing the amount of silvoculture acreage. Local farmers will be asked to consider adding the additional sheep breeds discussed below as a way of diversifying their flocks. As the climate changes over the next decade, some breeds may prove to be more adaptive than others [25].

3.1.1. Dorper Sheep

Dorper sheep are a South African breed. They are thick and muscular with a black or white head and a white body. The mature rams grow to around 230 lbs, and ewes average 180 - 210 lbs in live weight. They are harvestable in 8 - 9 months. Figure 14 below shows Dorper sheep in a silvopasture setting [25].

Figure 14. Dorper sheep in silvopasture setting.

3.1.2. Katahdin Sheep

The Katahdin sheep is a medium sized American breed which has a hair coat. Katahdins don’t need shearing, making them a low-maintenance breed. Adult rams grow to around 180 - 250 lbs and ewes range from 120 - 160 lbs. Their meat is naturally lean, fine-grained and has a mild flavor. They can be harvested in 6 - 9 months and provide 35 - 50 lbs of meat on average. Katahdins are disease resistant and cold-hardy, making them a good choice for Climate Change Haven Communities with colder winters [25]. Figure 15 below shows a Katahdin sheep in a silvopasture setting.

Figure 15. Katahdin sheep in silvopasture setting.

3.1.3. Suffolk Sheep

Suffolk sheep, shown in Figure 16 below, have white wool coats. Adult rams weigh from 250 to 350 lbs, while ewes range from 180 to 250 lbs. Suffolk lambs are fast-growing and produce high-quality meat at around 7 - 8 months of age. At the present time, American rural homesteaders and small farm owners often prefer raising Suffolks [25]. Thus, they should be a very good choice for Climate Change Haven Communities on a global basis.

Figure 16. Suffolk Sheep in silvopasture setting.

3.1.4. Texel Sheep

Texels have a short, white face with black noses; their heads and legs are hairless. Mature rams weigh 200 - 250 lbs, while ewes range from 140 to 175 lbs. Lambs are 55 lbs at weaning (12 weeks) and ready for processing 24 weeks, weighing around 95 lbs [25]. They are known for lean, tender meat. Figure 17 below shows a Texel sheep in a silvopasture setting.

Figure 17. Texel sheep in silvopasture setting.

3.1.5. Hampshire Sheep

Hampshire sheep originated in Southern England. They are a large, stocky breed with white wool and dark faces, ears, and legs. Mature rams will weigh around 175 lbs. The lambs mature early and produce quality meat at a weight of 45 - 55 lbs [25]. These sheep are easy to breed and produce healthy lambs, making them ideal for Climate Change Haven Community agriculture. Figure 18 below shows Hampshire sheep in a silvopasture setting.

Figure 18. Hampshire sheep in a silvopasture setting.

In this section the best breeds of pigs for silvoculture are discussed. Each of these breeds should be suitable as a meat source in global Climate Change Haven Community settings within temperate climate zones [26].

Tamworth pigs are recognizable by the red or golden red color of their skin. They are excellent foragers and protective mothers, making them strong choices for silvopasture agriculture. Tamworth meat is considered to be among the tastiest pork [26]. Figure 19 below shows a Tamworth pig in a silvoculture setting.

Figure 19. Tamworth pig foraging in a forest.

Berkshire hogs, shown in Figure 20 below, are a heritage breed originating in England. Their meat is darker than most pork often served in high-end restaurants [26] (23). This characteristic makes them a strong candidate for farmers in Climate Change Haven Communities who desire to sell their meat at a good profit.

Figure 20. Berkshire sow with piglets in silvoculture setting.

Mangalitsas are unusual looking pigs (see Figure 21 below). They originated in Hungary, almost became extinct, but were revived by Spanish farmers. The meat they produce is of very high quality. This breed is cold hardy and also excellent at foraging, making them a strong choice for global Climate Change Haven Communities in temperate regions [26].

Figure 21. Mangalista pigs in a silvoculture setting.

Red Wattle pigs, shown in Figure 22 below, are a large breed originally developed in Texas. The breed had been put on the Livestock Conservancy listing, although current climate change trends show it returning to popularity. Homesteaders prefer the Red Wattle hog for its docile temperament, lean meat, and good mothering traits [24]. It would be a strong choice for global pork production in temperate zone Climate Change Haven Communities.

Figure 22. Red Wattle pigs in a silvoculture setting.

Hampshires pigs are a common breed on American farms due to their climate hardiness and lean meat. They do well in silvoculture settings and are often used as a cross-breed to increase size in other pig breeds [26]. Figure 23 below shows a Hampshire pig.

Figure 23. Hampshire pig in fenced meadow.

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Because most hogs are natural foragers, transitioning them from a fenced barnyard shown in Figure 23, to a silvopasture setting is an easy transition. All pig herds should be rotated across multiple fields over the course of a year to enable the foraged fields to recover their biological diversity [26]. They are capable of providing a reliable, nutritious and low-maintenance meat source for global Climate Change Haven Communities.

The best chicken breeds for silvoculture in Climate Change Haven Communities are described below. The material for this section is adapted from the Livestock Conservancy [27].

The Sussex chicken shown above in Figure 24 is both docile and friendly. This breed is an excellent choice for Climate Change Haven Communities, because it produces both eggs and meat, while eating a low-cost, foraged diet [27].

Figure 24. Free range Sussex chicken.

Welsummer chickens shown below in Figure 25, are good foragers and prefer being in a silvoculture setting. They can provide both eggs and meat [27]. Thus, they are an excellent choice for the global temperate zone Climate Change Havens.

Figure 25. Welsummer chickens in silvoculture.

The Buckeye chicken breed shown below in Figure 26 is another excellent choice for Climate Change Haven Communities globally. They are heat and cold tolerant, produce large numbers of eggs and have high protein meat. They prefer silvoculture environments [27].

Figure 26. Buckeye chicken in silvopasture setting.

Figure 27. Leghorn chicken.

The Leghorn chicken shown above in Figure 27 is useful as an egg-layer. They are climate adaptable and excellent foragers in silvoculture settings [27].

Other recommended chicken breeds for use in global Climate Change Haven Communities in temperate climates include the Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, Wyandotte and Ancona [28][29].

Figure 28 below depicts the primary animals now used for meat production in Europe. As can be seen, these are predominately the same species used in North America, with a small population of goats present in the southern Baltic Region. Thus, the previous discussion of silvoculture requirements for these animals should be applicable with a predominant emphasis placed on the temperate mountainous areas of the European Region. Importantly, several of the southernmost areas of Europe are now becoming too hot and dry to support the animals being raised there. [30][31]. Efforts will need to be made as soon as possible to move these endangered animals to temperate mountainous areas of the EU which can provide more sustainable climates. Once moved, the animals will need to be placed in forested, silvoculture pastures.

Figure 28. Current domesticated food animal species in Europe.

The European Union is currently re-formulating its requirements on internal livestock transfers [32][33]. This effort should include permitting the transfer of domestic livestock from climate-endangered areas of southern Europe, e.g., Spain, Italy, to agriculturalists in the temperate regions of the European Union, e.g., Austria, Germany, with some form of credits provided to the southern EU countries transferring animals. These “transfer credits” would allow the southern EU “donor” countries to purchase meat at reduced prices over the next 3 to 5 years, which would allow their populations more time to prepare for their own transfer to less climate-endangered areas of the EU. Otherwise, the temperate regions of the EU may be overwhelmed economically by the large-scale arrival of both people and farm animals from the south.

There are also several European wild animal species comparable to the North American elk, bison and deer discussed earlier. These are presented below and can serve as silvoculture meat sources in a ranch setting.

Figure 29. European buffalo/bison.

The European bison/buffalo shown above in Figure 29 is native to most of the EU countries. After facing near extinction (like its North American cousin), it has been brought back by conservationists. This European species is an ideal candidate for agro-forestry/silvoculture ranching, because it is very cold hardy and prefers forest grazing environments. There are now adequate stocks available to permit rapid enlargement of their numbers [34].

The European elk habitat ranges across the northern and eastern parts of Europe, including Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. These elk are native to boreal forests, tundra, and colder mountainous regions. They require abundant vegetation and access to fresh water, which are readily available in Northern and Central Europe. Thus, elk should be strong candidates as alternative meat sources for European Union populations [35]. Existing elk herds can be quickly enlarged in numbers using silvoculture methods. However, adequate fencing will be required to contain the herds, as they are athletic jumpers [36]. Elk meat is highly nutritious and an excellent source of protein [37]. Figure 30 below shows a European elk in a silvoculture pasture.

Figure 30. European elk in a silvoculture setting. Note the high fence behind the elk.

There are three species of European deer that are appropriate for silvoculture settings as food animals. They are discussed below, along with accompanying images [38].

Red Deer are the largest European deer species, with mature stags weighing over 200 kg and reaching 130 cm at the shoulder. Their coat is reddish-brown in summer and greyish-brown in winter to provide camouflage from predators. These deer prefer grassy meadows for grazing. Red deer are already prevalent across the entire European Region; thus, they would be an excellent candidate for large-scale, fenced silvoculture ranching. Since southern Europe now faces increasing heat waves and drought, their current red deer herds should be shifted farther north as soon as possible and placed on silvoculture ranches. An image of red deer in a silvoculture setting is provided in Figure 31 below.

Figure 31. European red deer in a silvoculture setting.

Roe Deer are a smaller species, weighing between 15 - 30 kg and standing 60 - 75 cm at the shoulder. Their summer coat is a bright reddish-brown, fading to grey-brown in winter. As with the red deer above, this coat color change provides camouflage against predators. The males grow short, upright antlers with three points. Roe deer prefer mixed woodlands, forests, and agricultural areas with good cover, and are found throughout most of Europe. As with the red deer, they are very strong candidates as sustainable food sources (Figure 32).

Figure 32. Roe deer in a silvoculture pasture.

Fallow Deer have a coat that is light brown with white spots in summer. They weigh around 40 - 100 kg and stand 80 - 100 cm tall as adults. Fallow deer are found in deciduous and mixed woodlands; they are often found in public parks and on estates due to historical introductions. Fallow deer populations are currently present across central and southern Europe. As with the two other deer species discussed, this species would be a very viable food source in a silvoculture ranch setting. A fallow deer buck is shown below in Figure 33.

Figure 33. Fallow deer in a silvoculture setting.

Meat consumption by animal species varies widely across Asia. For present purposes, China is used as the model, since it has the largest population in the region and the most current statistics. As the chart in Figure 34 below indicates, per capita meat consumption in China has increased at a rapid rate over the last 20 years [39].

Figure 34. China’s meat consumption per capita from 1962 to 2022.

There are also some trends visible in meat preferences over this time period. Pork remains the predominate Chinese meat source; however, beef has increased in preference and sheep/goat meat consumption has also increased. Notably, the consumption of meat has grown as the country has become more prosperous and consumers are able to afford more meat in their diet. This is shown in Figure 35 below.

Figure 35. Growth rate of Chinese economy.

Importantly for present purposes, China began a reforestation program in 1978 which is intended to transform 88 million acres of desert into a forest [40]-[42]. This program will enable the country to make widespread use of agroforestry/silvoculture for its existing food animal sources e.g., pork, beef.

It also means that China will be able to add wild species of food animals to its meat sources by creating ranches which fence herds within silvoculture pastures. The meat from these wild species is substantially healthier for human diets than the traditional meat sources. Each species is discussed below.

There are several deer species native to China; they include the Red deer, Pere David’s deer, Sika deer, Water deer, Roe deer and Musk deer. An image of a Red deer herd is shown below in Figure 36.

Figure 36. Chinese Red deer in a silvoculture setting.

Some of the Chinese deer species are very small in size, while others are quite rare. These species would not be suitable as food sources. However, Chinese Red deer, discussed earlier with regard to Europe, and shown above in Figure 36, would be appropriate for ranching using the same fencing types required in North America and Europe.

Elk similar to those in North America and Europe were re-introduced to China in 1986 [41]. They have now increased in numbers to 8,502 in 2025, including 3,673 living in the wild. Thus, it would be desirable for China to systematically increase their elk population over the next decade in order to provide the country with another viable food source. As discussed earlier in the present study, elk is nutritionally superior to beef and would be a desirable addition to the Chinese population’s diet. Below in Figure 37 is a photograph of a Chinese elk in a silvoculture setting.

Figure 37. Chinese elk in a silvoculture pasture.

There are no animals analogous to the European and North American bison discussed earlier as silvoculture food sources. However, there is an Asian animal in the bovine family termed the guar, which is pictured below in Figure 38. Guar are the largest bovine animals on Earth; they once roamed across much of south Asia including portions of China and Tibet. The domesticated types of guar are called Gayals and, importantly for the present purposes, they are comfortable dwelling in forested hills, grassy clearings and mountains up to 5905 feet high [42].

Figure 38. Domesticated guar in a silvoculture setting.