Previous studies have investigated the effects of physical exercise on cognitive function. Systematic reviews have indicated that various types of exercise are effective in improving or maintaining global cognitive performance. Among these, resistance exercise demonstrated the highest probability of being the most effective intervention for slowing declines in global cognition, executive function, and memory in patients with cognitive impairment [1]. In addition, aerobic exercise, particularly when performed for 30 minutes per session, less than 150 minutes per week, and up to three times per week—has been shown to improve cognitive function in patients with Alzheimer’s disease [2].

Normal aging is associated with gradual brain atrophy [3], while aerobic exercise training is effective in reversing hippocampal volume loss in late adulthood, which is accompanied by improved memory function [4]. Previous research using neuroimaging systems has shown that physical exercise improves attentional function and information-processing speed throughout life [5]. Moreover, a meta-analysis has shown that physical exercise enhances memory [6]. Physical exercise affects the molecular pathways involved in synaptic functions underlying learning and memory [5]. Collectively, this review article suggests that exercise can enhance cerebrovascular function, cognition, and neuroplasticity in areas of the brain associated with executive function and memory in adults aged 50 years or older, regardless of their overall health status. However, it also pointed out that further research is required to elucidate the mechanisms of action [7].

In general, learning and memory require concentration; however, the direct impact of physical exercise on concentration skills remains unclear. Therefore, we hypothesized that physical exercise would improve concentration skills. To clarify this issue, we focused on the immediate effects of acute exercise. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance.

Table 2 shows a comparison of the pre- and post-conditions for each condition.

Table 2.Comparison of pre- and post-conditions within each condition.

Significant differences or trends are indicated (*P < 0.05, Wilcoxon signed-rank test).

Systolic BP, PR, and SpO₂ all increased significantly in post-exercise conditions compared with pre-exercise condition (P < 0.01), while diastolic BP decreased significantly (P < 0.01), confirming that the exercise load was appropriately imposed. In contrast, only systolic BP decreased significantly in post-non-exercise conditions compared with pre conditions (P < 0.01).

Regarding the results of the concentration task, no significant changes were observed in both conditions (P > 0.05).

This study examined the effects of acute exercise on concentration performance. The increase in PR and systolic BP immediately after exercise can be interpreted as exercise load, and the results showed that the number of incorrect responses on the TMT-B and pencil release tended to decrease immediately after acute exercise.

The fact that this study showed no improvement in concentration performances. Previous research using the Stroop Test has shown that brain activation in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is significantly enhanced after acute exercise, and this activation is consistent with improved cognitive ability [10]. It is believed that the concentration performance observed in this study also reflects similar neural bases. A meta-analysis also showed that acute moderate exercise can selectively enhance executive function [11]. Moreover, previous research has shown that moderate exercise is more likely to lead to improved behavioral performance than high-intensity exercise [11].

The reason for the lack of improvement in the concentration performance in this study may be that exercise intensity was not adjusted to be moderate for the subjects. In terms of exercise style, the squats in this study combined aerobic-resistance exercise with continuous rhythmic exercise, which is consistent with a recent meta-analysis showing that even acute resistance exercise can improve executive function [12]. Therefore, short-term aerobic-resistance exercise can be considered a practical measure to improve quality by suppressing errors and stabilizing attention. However, adjustments to exercise intensity may be necessary to enhance concentration performance.

This study had some limitations. First, the concentration task was limited to the TMT. Second, adjustments in the exercise intensity are necessary. Third, the sample size was small. To address these limitations, future studies should adjust the exercise intensity and conduct various concentration tasks with a larger number of participants. In conclusion, no improvement in concentration performance was observed. This result may be due to factors such as the intensity of exercise. Further research with adjusted exercise intensity is needed to clarify the phenomenon and discuss further.

MM and KN: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, resources, data curation, visualization, supervision, project administration (original draft preparation), and writing (review and editing). TH: Validation, formal analysis, writing, editing, and review. All the authors have read and agreed to the published version of this manuscript.

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Nishikyushu University (approval no. 24FNA38).

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

The datasets generated and analyzed in the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

The authors extend their gratitude to all study participants.