Data on camel distribution along the Saudi Arabian coastlines of the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf were compiled from official records and relevant literature ([13]) to provide a contextual framework for the review. The dataset included the number of camels in each coastal province, allowing characterization of spatial variability in grazing pressure across the regions. These data were collected, organized, and analyzed to support subsequent synthesis of literature on mangrove grazing impacts and management strategies.

A structured search was conducted in Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, and Google Scholar for studies published between 1980 and 2025. Keywords included camel grazing, camel browsing, mangrove herbivory, A. marina, Arabian Gulf mangroves, and grazing management in arid coasts.

A comparative framework was employed to evaluate the ecological impacts of camel grazing by contrasting non-grazed reference sites, such as Abu Ali Island, with heavily grazed mangrove systems in regions including Jazan. The assessment incorporated species-specific zonation patterns, with particular emphasis on how substrate firmness and physical constraints, such as the stilt root architecture of Rhizophoramucronata, regulate camel access and grazing preferences relative to A.marina. Evidence from traditional Saudi Arabian stewardship practices, including the hima system, was integrated with contemporary regulatory and conservation frameworks to support the development of an effective, context-specific grazing management strategy for mangrove ecosystems under arid coastal conditions.

The coastal zones of Saudi Arabia along the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf span a broad ecological gradient that supports extensive stands of A.marina. However, these regions experience markedly different grazing pressures due to substantial variation in camel distribution. As illustrated in Figure 1, data from the accompanying table indicate that the Red Sea coast collectively supports approximately 680 thousand camels (680 × 10³) across the provinces of Tabuk, Al Madinah Al Munawwarah, Makkah Al Mukarramah, Asir, and Jazan, creating a pronounced west-coast gradient of potential browsing intensity. In contrast, the Arabian Gulf coast is dominated by the Eastern Province, which hosts an additional 361 thousand camels (361 × 10³), representing one of the highest regional densities and suggesting considerable grazing pressure on adjacent mangrove habitats. Taken together, the Red Sea coastal regions account for 65% of the camel population, whereas the Eastern Province (Arabian Gulf) accounts for the remaining 35%. This clear spatial variability in camel abundance provides an essential basis for evaluating the ecological impacts of grazing on A.marina and for developing targeted restoration and management strategies tailored to the grazing regimes of each coastal region.

Figure 1. Distribution and population of coastal camels in Saudi Arabian regions.

Figure 1 illustrates the coastal regional distribution of camels across Saudi Arabia, showing a pronounced concentration in coastal provinces, particularly the Eastern Province and Makkah Al Mukarramah, which host the largest populations ranging from 281,000 to 361,000 animals. Despite similar population densities, the environmental exposure and coastal accessibility of camel herds differ markedly between regions. Along the Arabian Gulf, camels in the Eastern Province often have limited access to mangrove ecosystems (Avicenniamarina) due to industrial development, road networks, and urban expansion that physically separate grazing areas from the shoreline. In contrast, western and southwestern coastal regions such as Jazan retain more traditional pastoral systems and relatively unobstructed coastlines, allowing camels to graze extensively on mangroves. Sustained grazing pressure in these regions leads to repeated leaf browsing and trampling of pneumatophores, resulting in stunted mangrove growth and broader degradation of mangrove ecosystem structure and function.

The diagram clearly illustrates why camels primarily graze on A.marina and avoid R.mucronata, reflecting a major ecological challenge to mangrove conservation (Figure 2). R.mucronata grows in limited, scattered areas along the southern and southwestern Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia, including the Farasan Islands and Jazan coast, in intertidal zones. It is less common and more fragmented than A.marina. Camels can access and graze the A.marina fringe because this species typically occupies the higher, landward edge of the tidal mudflat, where the substrate is firmer and less frequently flooded, allowing the camel to walk without sinking. Furthermore, A.marina often has a lower content of defensive compounds like tannins, making it more palatable to the camels, which rely on the foliage for high-quality nutrition, especially during winter ([20]). In stark contrast, R. mucronata is found deeper in the intertidal zone, where the mud is soft and waterlogged (flooded for longer periods), causing the camel to sink. Crucially, the Rhizophora species is characterized by a dense network of tall, elaborate stilt/prop roots which create a physical barrier that prevents the camel from moving further into the forest and accessing the canopy for grazing ([28]; [18]). This selective pressure from camel grazing, which is a known significant contributor to mangrove degradation along the Saudi Red Sea coast, leads to the heavy pruning and reduced reproductive capacity specifically of the A.marina stands, making its restoration a primary focus ([7]).

Figure 2. Cross-sectional diagram illustrating zonation of dominant mangrove species (A. marina and R. mucronata) and constraints on camel grazing within a typical Saudi Arabian tidal mudflat.

Camel grazing exerts profound impacts on A.marina stands across Saudi Arabia and other arid coastlines, altering both forest structure and ecosystem functioning. Repeated browsing reduces leaf area, apical meristems, and branch density, which constrains vertical and lateral canopy growth and diminishes photosynthetic capacity and nutrient assimilation. Studies such as [3] report significant declines in canopy height, crown cover, and overall stand vigor in Red Sea mangroves subjected to chronic grazing, while similar research in arid and semi-arid regions demonstrates that persistent herbivory suppresses regeneration, delays recruitment, and reduces sapling survival by removing essential photosynthetic tissues ([12]; [29]). Moreover, grazed mangroves are more vulnerable to heat stress, hypersalinity, and hydrological variability, compounding long-term losses in productivity and resilience ([22]; [17]). Beyond these immediate effects, camel grazing simultaneously limits canopy expansion and reduces reproductive output, seedling establishment, and stand turnover, thereby reinforcing degradation through a self-perpetuating cycle ([11]; [23]). Comparative observations between non-grazed forests on Abu Ali Island and grazed mangroves in the Jazan region illustrate these structural and functional consequences (Figure 3), while international studies further highlight declines in carbon sequestration, habitat complexity, and coastal protection. Together, these findings indicate that persistent camel grazing is a primary driver of mangrove decline in arid coastal systems, emphasizing the urgent need for management strategies to mitigate herbivory, preserve forest structure, and maintain ecosystem resilience.

Figure 3. A. marina forest on Abu Ali Island, showing non-grazed conditions due to no camel access, compared with grazed forest in the Jazan region.

Camel grazing exerts sustained pressure on Saudi Arabian mangroves and adjacent drylands. Browsing removes leaves and apical meristems, reducing photosynthetic area and disrupting apical dominance, which limits shoot extension and canopy growth (Aljahdali[2]). Trampling compacts surface soils and sediments, reducing pore space and slowing oxygen diffusion, which restricts root elongation and impairs pneumatophore gas exchange required for internal aeration ([21]; [25]). Trampling also lowers sediment redox potential and slows microbial nutrient transformations, reducing nitrogen and phosphorus cycling rates that support seedling development. As compaction intensifies, erosion susceptibility increases due to greater exposure to tidal shear stress and the loss of fine sediments, weakening root anchorage and restricting vertical accretion, processes needed for elevation stability under sea level rise ([16]). Structural damage to pneumatophores and surface sediments further undermines root-sediment interactions and gas exchange capacity (Figure 4). Recruitment failure is reinforced because A. marina propagules and seedlings are readily buried, dislodged, or uprooted in trampled substrates. Repeated browsing shifts carbon allocation away from root systems, delaying recovery of branching and sediment-stabilizing tissues (Aljahdali[2]; [21]). Similar grazing-driven regeneration limitations have been reported where camels and large herbivores use intertidal forests in arid regions under strong abiotic stress ([9]; [26]). Along the Saudi Red Sea coast, natural elevation gain and recruitment remain slow, making sustained grazing likely to exceed recovery thresholds and promote persistent sediment instability and regeneration failure if unmanaged. Grazing exclusion combined with active restoration is required to reverse compaction impacts and support recruitment recovery ([21]).

Figure 4. Impact of camel grazing on sediment structure and pneumatophore integrity in A. marina.

Grazing management measures such as controlled access, exclusion fencing, and spatial zoning emerge as highly effective tools for reducing camel pressure and supporting the recovery of A.marina stands. Across reviewed studies, protected areas consistently exhibit higher seedling survival, improved canopy density, and increased aboveground biomass compared with grazed sites, demonstrating that limiting herbivore access rapidly facilitates structural regeneration and physiological recovery. Similar outcomes have been reported in other dryland and coastal ecosystems, where herbivore exclusion promotes soil restoration, enhances vegetation cover, and improves ecosystem function ([27]; [14]).

In Saudi Arabia, the effectiveness of these measures is reinforced by a tradition of community-based stewardship, which combines tribal and herder knowledge with formal governance. Historically, Bedouin and tribal customs employed hima systems to allocate grazing rights and protect lands through collective norms and leadership, preventing overuse and degradation ([15]). Today, this approach is integrated into national strategies by the NCVC under the Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture, which regulates grazing through designated sites, seasonal permits (e.g., via the digital Nabati platform), and carrying capacity assessments that align herder practices with ecological limits ([19]). Local herders and tribal networks collaborate with NCVC staff and community committees to obtain permits, apply sustainable practices, and contribute indigenous knowledge, blending traditional stewardship with scientific planning to enhance compliance and ecological outcomes ([19]). The broader legal and policy framework further supports local participation in land management decisions, ensuring pastoral voices influence rules affecting grazing patterns ([24]).

These governance and community engagement mechanisms complement ecological tools such as exclusion fencing, controlled access, and spatial zoning, strengthening restoration efforts. Temporary exclusion periods allow mangrove stands to rebuild biomass and resilience under controlled conditions (Figure 5). Integrating grazing regulation with national mangrove rehabilitation programs therefore provides a practical and evidence-based pathway for improving restoration outcomes, reducing long-term degradation, and ensuring the sustainability of mangrove ecosystems along the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf coasts.

Figure 5. The functional mechanism of grazing control measures, demonstrating how limiting camel access to A. marina stands promotes structural regeneration and contributes to broader mangrove ecosystem benefits and long-term sustainability.

The collective evidence indicates that camel grazing is a major anthropogenic constraint on the persistence, regeneration, and functional stability of A.marina along the Saudi Arabian coast. Sustained browsing suppresses natural recruitment, reduces canopy structure, and accelerates soil degradation, while trampling-induced compaction and erosion push ecosystems beyond recovery thresholds (Figure 6). Without targeted management, these pressures limit the effectiveness of restoration efforts and undermine long-term habitat resilience. The findings thus emphasize the urgent need for a national grazing management framework that combines spatial exclusion, regulated seasonal access, and community-based stewardship to mitigate herbivory impacts across priority mangrove zones. When paired with complementary restoration measures such as hydrological enhancement, sediment stabilization, and strategic planning, well-designed grazing control can significantly improve survival, growth, and ecosystem functioning, strengthening the long-term sustainability of mangrove habitats along the Saudi coastlines of the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf.

Figure 6. Highly degraded mangrove forest resulting from climate impacts and camel grazing, alongside ongoing restoration efforts in the Jazan region, South Red Sea.