Study time management refers to the way students plan, organize and coordinate school activities and tasks so as to successfully complete them and achieve set goals. It involves students managing goals, setting priorities, monitoring and controlling their time while engaging in everyday activities within a certain period of time resulting in effective use of time and improved performance [2][3][15]. It is hypothesized that students’ who spent more time learning and processing the learning content more deeply and persist until tasks are completed achieve better grades.

Empirical research shows that efficient study time management is associated with self-regulation, study organization and increased students’ effort investment in studying which significantly predicts achievement [2][3][15][16]. Effective time management is a self-regulatory practice linked to higher motivation and grades [17], while poor time management leads to poor grades [18][19]. Studies show identification with academics can strengthen students’ study time management strategies leading to increased time and effort expenditure on academics and grades [3][6].

A cross-sectional study was conducted to examine the effect of perceived instrumentality and time management planning on achievement of 750 students in grade 7 - 9 aged 12 - 15 in Portugal. Data was analysed using the structural equation modelling and they reported that planning time significantly influenced achievement [3]. Similarly, a cross-sectional study in Portugal on the predictive power of volitional control strategies, time management planning and procrastination on self-regulation and academic success of 565 grade 7 - 9 students aged 12 - 15 was done. The researchers employed correlational analyses and structural equation modelling and found self-regulation was strongly predicted by volitional control strategies, planning and procrastination. Time management aspect of self-regulation significantly influenced achievement [4].

A large study in China using PISA 2018 survey data of 9343 students aged 15 years, examined students’ attitudes toward school and subjective well-being in relation to how much time in minutes they spend per week learning and how it affects their performance in math (200 - 240), reading (200) and science (440 - 520). They found that more study time helped improve scores in math and science, but only up to a certain point, after that, too much time was found to reduce performance. Moderate time use was linked to more positive attitudes and well-being, while excessive time reduced both, which then lowered achievement. This study predicted weekly learning time with quantified minutes for specific subjects while the current study examined general study time management across subjects [2].

A meta-analysis of 53 studies among 53,957 student and employee samples across Western and Asia regions found that time management was significantly related to achievement. Stronger correlations were observed with students well-being and study behaviours than test scores. Indicating that time management skills may partly influence achievement through non-cognitive ways (task completion, productivity, reduced stress, and better engagement). Moderator analysis found strong link of time management and achievement among Western samples than in Asian ones especially when scores measured with self-reports unlike GPA scores. This shows the role of cultural and methodological context like self-perfection and study habits which may act as mediators in other contexts [20].

A correlational study on the relationship between time management and academic achievement was conducted among 213 education students at San Agustin Institute of Technology, Philippines. Findings revealed no significant relationship between time management and academic achievement. However, higher academic achievement was reported while time management levels were low. The study used university students, the current study will use a larger sample of high school students in Kenya to find out whether time management predicts students’ achievement [7]. In the same region a study of 2000 high school students in Jordan found a moderate and significant relationship achievement and time management. However, no significant differences were found of time management and achievement in relation to hours studied [21]. These findings show the importance of having effective time management skills on grades which informed carrying out the current study.

In Africa, a survey study was done in the University of the Free State, South African self-regulated learning and time perspective as predictors of achievement in Economics. Using 200 year two undergraduates Keyser found a positive correlation between effort regulation, time management and achievement. Future oriented students were found to engage in effort regulation and efficient study time management enhancing achievement [22]. Similarly, in South Africa another study obtained different results among 100 black engineering undergraduates at Vaal University of Technology. The ex-post facto study on students’ time management skills and achievement found that 40% of the students did not set a study schedule while 60% - 80% were found to be organized though time management did not predict achievement [23]. The study sample was restricted to black engineering undergraduates. This study examined high school students’ time management from the general population in Kenya.

A case study at the University of Venda, South Africa, examined time management challenges on achievement of six students from first to third year and found poor organization led to work overload and stress which resulted to poor achievement. Use of social media was reported linked to low scores while last minute studying increased students stress leading to low scores. Poor time management and absenteeism were negatively correlated with achievement [24]. However, the sample used was small limiting generalizability.

In West Africa, Nigeria a study of 200 students attending Ekiti State tertiary institution found a positive and significant relationship between achievement, procrastination and time management [25]. A significant negative relationship was found between time spent on social activities and achievement. A survey of 1920 senior school students in Osun State, Nigeria on time management strategies, study habits and achievement reported that time management strategies significantly predicted achievement, study habits and achievement. Last minute studying and cramming shortly before the exam were found to have a negative effect on achievement [26]. Surveying 500 students from seven public senior high schools in Northern Ghana, findings revealed that students who spend more time on self-study had significantly high grades [27]. On the contrary, an ex-post facto study among 120 students of Covenant University, Nigeria revealed no correlation between time management and students’ academic achievement [28].

In East Africa, a survey of 120 business and economics undergraduates at Dire Dawa University, Ethiopia on time management and achievement was done. A strong correlation of time management and achievement was reported. Students’ short-term planning was the most preferred way of managing time and was correlated with achievement. Better time management among high performers compared was found. Effective time management was associated with more engagement in academics, less stress and better grades [29].

In Kenya, a convergent mixed methods design was done to test students’ time management skills on KCSE performance. Interviews were conducted in 13 public schools in Kiambu Sub-County among 1759 form two’s, 52 class teachers and 13 principals. Students were reported to have difficulties in managing their time in preparation for KCSE. Students’ effective time use was reported to help in preparing for KCSE [30]. Using a similar sample, the current study replicated findings with qualitative insights to enhance time management. In a larger area, a survey of 381 students from 20 top and 20 bottom performing high schools in five Counties of Central Kenya was conducted. The study revealed higher achievement among students who utilized the allocated time effectively for studies. They used students from top and bottom performing schools while the current study randomly sampled students [31]. Using an ex-post facto study and a sample of 300 orphaned high school students in Bondo Sub-County, a positive relationship between time management and achievement was found [32]. The current study replicate the results using an urban sample of mixed backgrounds in Mombasa County.

Overall, reviewed studies have used mixed methodologies and reported contradictory results on time management and achievement. Majority of them have used college students who may be better in time management compared to high school students. The current study sought to find out whether the same can be replicated among high school students in Kenya. Given the important role of time management in achievement as shown in the literature and few local studies in this area, the current study was necessary to address the gap in literature.

Identification with academics is “the extent to which academic pursuits and outcomes form the basis for global self-evaluation conceptually distinct from, though related to, self-esteem and self-concept” [33]. It reflects a student’s sense of belonging to school where school becomes a part of one’s self-definition and has been found to predict stronger persistence and higher achievement [11][34]. This link shows that achievement contributes to self-esteem, making school success a key part of self-definition [33]. Academic identification is the emotional part of academic engagement where students high on identification feel a sense of belonging to school and value academics [11].

Academic identification is closely related to academic disidentification defined as a low link between how students feel about academics (academic self-esteem) and how one may feel about themselves as a person [33]. It involves perceptions of belonging and valuing within an academic context. Another perspective that is similar to academic identification is identification with school or school belonging. Defined as the feelings of acceptance and belonging within school and the valuing of school [11]. Students who believe that success in academics relates to how they feel about themselves identify with academics, are motivated to attain highly, to set clear goals, stay engaged and are more satisfied with such success [33][35][36].

Research shows that students’ academic identification and study time management is strongly shaped by feelings of school belonging, peer relations and school culture which in turn enhances sense of self, hence optimal performance [6][11][37]-[39]. Supportive peer environments enhance belonging and motivates students to plan and manage their time effectively leading to sustained academic success [11]. Yet, there is a peer culture that ridicules schoolwork, for instance, two peer groups exists, one that mocks effort and one that values it, achievement is affected [11]. Since working hard is seen as uncool or feminine [38][39], some students may conceal ability to fit in, discouraging hard work, making success seem unpopular, hindering motivation and identification. According to Rentzsch and otters “nerds”, labels [40] and Feather’s Tall Poppy Syndrome (negative attitude towards the high achievers) stereotypes against high achievers impairs performance [41]. Such student reduced effort in order to fit in, while low achievers protect their self-esteem by devaluing academics or dropping out [37]-[40]. Fear of rejection or academic failure and stigma may reduce identification and achievement resulting in disengagement or devaluing of academics aligning with the disidentification hypothesis [33]. The hypothesis shows how repeated social or academic failure causes students to detach from academics to preserves self-worth with some identifying more with the social domain. Effective study time management, therefore, relies not only on discipline but also on supportive peer cultures that sustain identification.

Longitudinal studies on identification and academic outcomes of high school students were conducted in southwest, USA. Study one used 24,599 students from the National Educational Longitudinal Survey data of racially diverse schools. Identification was correlated with academic outcomes, revealing that students who withdrew from school started disidentifying two years prior to withdrawing, with significant differences noted among disidentified students who withdrew and those who remained in school. Using more than 200 students the second study showed that identification was related to intrinsic valuing of academics, use of self-regulation strategies, learning goals and a mastery orientation, absenteeism, behaviour referrals and withdrawal [34][42]. A follow up study explained the paradox of the most identified students at risk of underachievement and school dropout. Identification and withdrawal from school of ethnic minority was examined to determine whether it is a racial paradox. They argued that achievement is central to the self for most students and was an important motivator which influenced students’ identification. Yet, for some minority students’ identification may increase the chances of poor performance or even withdrawal [34][36]. Replicating these studies in needed to confirm whether identification influences students’ study time management and achievement.

Another longitudinal study of 131 ninth grade students in Midwestern, USA on identification with academics, stereotype threat and achievement found highly identified student had higher grades and lower absenteeism. Identification predicted differently early withdrawal from school for blacks and whites [12]. School withdrawal was reported among 39 students who disidentified within the two years of the study. Corroborating the stereotype hypothesis that academically stigmatized students especially highly identified students of color will withdraw due to anxiety making school a hostile place while whites withdrew due to low identification [12][33]. Feelings of disconnect lowered identification and achievement as they saw no reason to invest in academics. The current study sought extend the findings.

A sense of belonging study showed that students who felt connected to school persisted more when faced with challenges increasing their grades. A significant relationship was found between school belonging, enjoyment of schoolwork and grit [43]. While another study found rural and private school students spent more time studying than those in urban and public school, although urban students often did well. School belonging and mastery goals predicted students reading through perceived usefulness of the task and increased engagement [2]. using survey data from PISA 2018 of 11,364 Chinese (5455 girls, 5909 boys) from 332 schools aged 15 years to examine school belonging and reading literacy. Multilevel modelling and moderated mediation was used to analyze data. School belonging positively influenced reading literacy, mastery goal orientation mediated the relationship moderated by school disciplinary climate. Schools with stricter discipline weakened the mastery goal orientation and achievement link. Students with stronger belonging adopted mastery goal orientations improving reading outcomes [43]. Supporting the mediating role of identification, motivational beliefs and achievement.

Using 1700 middle school students in Germany, Canada and Israeli, a survey study on the impacts of high peer pressure on maths achievement showed that valuing maths achievement by high achievers cushioned the effects of peer pressure. High achieving German participants showed stronger peer pressure in achievement compared to Canadians and Israeli students. A significant correlation was reported between fear of social seclusion and achievement of high achieving German students. Peer pressure was found to be less prevalent in societies that value achievement highly compared to those that devalue high achievement. Since many students’ value peer opinion the current study examined instrumentality and achievement among adolescents experiencing peer pressure in a culturally different setting [36].

The future oriented theory highlights the importance of social support in achievement [6]. Positive role models strengthen students’ identification. Studies [36][44] show that a lack of visible, successful role models leads to disidentification and poor performance. Further, students begin school strongly identified with academics, this connection weakens in adolescence [33]. Reviewed literature focused on minority samples who may be subject to bias, it was expected that the findings would only be applicable to the minority groups. Thus, it was necessary to conduct research with a diverse sample from the general population.

In Africa, studies have looked at specific subjects, gender role stereotype, school type and academic disidentification [34][42]. A study in Northern Uganda looked at mathematic identification and its relation to school type and achievement. The study surveyed 89 girls’ in10th grade in two high performing boarding high schools with an aim of comparing their level of maths identification and achievement in mixed and single sex schools. Findings revealed higher achievement, efficacy and identification with maths among the girls in single schools. Gender role stereotype in mixed schools and low students’ identification was reported [42]. In South Africa, a survey of 442 high school girls in Lesotho on stereotype endorsement and maths achievement found low engagement and achievement in maths among girls who endorsed maths as a male-only subject. Stereotypes were found to lower achievement, efficacy and maths identification [45]. The current study replicated the findings using a larger mixed sample across all subjects. Locally, studies on identification and achievement are scarce, but the link can be inferred from studies examining other related factors. For instance, a study in Kisii County examined the mediating role of academic disidentification on achievement goals, perceived teacher support and math achievement among 392 form three students. They found that academic disidentification partially mediated the effects of achievement goals and teacher support on math performance. Students with stronger approach-oriented goals and greater perceived teacher support were less likely to disidentify from academics, hence better performance. Identifying with academics, the opposite of disidentifying motivated students to stay engaged in academics. Otanga reported higher achievement among students who identified with academics [34]. Conversely, a study on achievement goals and ability beliefs found that students who did not see the need to set goals nor bother about schooling, were extreme disidentified affecting their grades [46]. These studies shows that effective study time management and valuing school can sustain identification and achievement.

The study measured the following variables: Study time management (time management, planning and organization) measured at interval level as the independent variable. The intervening variables was identification with academics. The dependent variable was students’ academic achievement, average scores of all subjects in one term were converted into T-scores for comparison across the sample and measured at interval level.

The study used stratified, purposive and simple random sampling procedures. Purposive sampling was used to choose Mombasa County public secondary schools from 6 Sub-Counties and form two students. The County has two national schools (boys and a girls’ school) which were purposely selected for the study. Stratified sampling was used to classify schools into national and Sub-County. Simple random sampling was used to select seven Sub-County schools by gender, two boys’ schools, two girls’ schools and three mixed schools using the lottery method. In total, nine schools were selected to participate in the study. Five hundred and forty two participants, were chosen using simple random sampling.

The data collection tools included a questionnaire and document analysis for students. The questionnaire was used to collect students’ information on study time management, identification with academics and academic achievement. Study time management was measured using the Assessment of Time Management Skills, The ATMS [48]. The instrument was selected because it is reliable and practical for adolescents with a reliability index of 0.77. While Identification with Academics Scale (IAS) [33] measured students’ identification with academics with an alpha value of 0.72. Students’ academic achievement was measured by document analysis. Teachers from selected schools were requested to provide students’ academic achievement records for one term. Data on academic achievement was acquired from the students’ performance records. Aggregate scores of subjects examined at end of the term exams were used. This were transformed into T-scores to be able to compare them among the schools selected. Teachers rating of students’ academic achievement were considered adequate since they had been used previously in related studies [3][12]. In all the cited studies grades were obtained from school records and an overall mean computed.

The researcher with permission from administrators administered the questionnaires to the students during normal school hours. The researcher briefed selected students about the study and requested them to sign the consent form before inviting them to fill the questionnaires. Filled questionnaires were then collected. The researcher requested the class teachers to provide students end of term achievement records. All questionnaires for students took between 20 - 30 minutes to complete. The completed questionnaires were collected for analysis.

Data was analysed using Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The following null hypotheses were tested at α = 0.05 using inferential statistics as shown.

H₀₁: Study time management does not significantly predict academic achievement controlling for identification with academics. Multiple linear regression was done.

This section provides a general overview of the information on the participants and the return rate of the study instruments. The researcher visited all the nine schools and administered the questionnaires to students in person. Questionnaires were collected immediately after administration resulting in a high returned rate of 98%. Out of the expected 553 students targeted, 542 were used in the final analysis, the missing eleven were excluded due to incomplete exam records. The student sample for the study is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Return rate of the questionnaires.

Results from Table 1 indicate that schools were sub-divided into national and Sub-County categories. Mombasa County has two national schools (girls and boys) both were sampled in addition to seven Sub-County schools. Results from Table 1 indicate that majority of the sampled population was obtained from seven Sub-County schools. Overall sample consisted of 263 (38.5%) male and 279 (51.5%) female.

The study findings were presented in line with the study objectives. Quantitative results were given through descriptive statistics and inferential statistics used to test the stated hypotheses. A discussion of findings from quantitative analyses was then done.

The study sought to establish the extent to which study time management predicted academic achievement controlling for identification with academics. Study time management was measured at two levels, that is, time management and organisation and planning. The means and standard deviations of measured variables are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Means and standard deviations of study time management.

Findings in Table 2 indicate comparatively higher scores reported in organization and planning but not time management.

To classify students by whether they reported high or low study time management, the two variables were recoded using their median and presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Descriptive analysis of study time management.

As also reported in Table 2, findings in Table 3 indicate that students reported higher organization and planning and lower time management.

Two hypotheses were formulated:

H0₁: Time management does not significantly predict academic achievement controlling for identification with academics.

H0₂: Organisation and planning do not significantly predict academic achievement controlling for identification with academics.

Hypothesis 1. Time management does not significantly predict academic achievement controlling for identification.

Significant direct effects of time management on academic achievement, F(2, 542) = 6.85, p= 0.001, R² = 0.03 were found when controlling for identification. The indirect effect through identification was significantly different from zero for academic achievement (β = 0.10, SE = 0.05, CI [0.018, 0.200]). Evidence leads to the conclusion that identification significantly mediates the relationship between time management and academic achievement. The increase in achievement is via an increase in identification. The findings were presented in Table 4.

Table 4.Mediation of identification on the relationship between time management and achievement.

The hypothesis that time management does not significantly predict achievement controlling for identification was supported by data. Evidence leads to the conclusion that identification significantly mediates the relationship between time management and academic achievement. The increase in achievement is via an increase in identification. Under this conceptualization, the link between time management and achievement is due to students’ identification. This finding aligns with previous research that suggests that students who identify with academics view school as a part of their self-view [11], considers it as an important part of their future success. Consequently, they invest time and effort in school activities to sustain that success [49].

Bandura’s as cited in Miller and Brickman [6] showed that identification with academics mediated the effect of time management skills on individuals learning outcomes by influencing one’s effort and persistence in the face of obstacles. Miller and Brickman’s theory helps explain the findings by showing that when students internalize the value of education through identification, they are more likely to utilize their time well and engage in purposeful study behaviours that support academic success. Identification thus, explained how time management enhanced achievement thus the study outcome.

Findings revealed that identification with academics is related to intrinsic valuing of academics, use of self-regulation strategies, holding learning goals and a mastery orientation, which correlates with increased academic achievement [50]. Osborne and Walker corroborate this finding that identification with academics is associated with motivation to achieve and that academics is an important source of self-esteem which strongly influences students’ academic achievement [51]. Voelkl as cited in Virtanen [11] found that identification with academic is influenced by students’ social context, since interaction with peers and support from teachers and parents form the basis of students’ perception of school belonging which in turn increases engagement and performance in academics. Conversely, a negative relationship was found between identification and achievement [44]. Attributing it to students’ failure to link their lives with school, finding no value in investing in academics.

The expectancy theory emphasizes that students’ achievement behaviors are shaped by both the value they place on tasks and their sense of identification with them [10]. They noted that students who see school tasks as meaningful and connected to their goals possess strong academic identification. Such students plan and monitor their study time more effectively to achieve their goals, suggesting identification may drive time management. Similarly, in this study, time management predicted higher achievement indirectly through identification, suggesting that effective time use reflects not only self-regulation but also a deeper connection to academic goals and values. Managing time well requires not just organization but also motivation and identification [52]. In this study, identification mediated the relationship between time management and achievement, implying that identification overrides the direct effect of time management.

Hypothesis 2. Organisation and planning does not significantly predict academic achievement controlling for identification.

Significant direct effects of organization and planning on academic achievement, F(2, 542) = 4.92, p= 0.008, R² = 0.02 were found when identification was added to the model. The coefficient for organization and planning went into insignificance when identification was added to the model predicting academic achievement, (β = 0.09, SE = 0.15, p = 0.532) indicating full mediation. The indirect effect through identification was significantly different from zero for academic achievement (β = 0.06, SE = 0.03, CI [0.014, 0.122]). Findings provide support for the hypothesis and were presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Mediation of identification on the relationship between organisation and planning and achievement.

Quantitative results show that identification with academics fully mediated the link between organization, planning and achievement. Theory also confirms that students who set future academic goals and identify with school tasks are more motivated to plan and persist, suggesting identification mediates the link between planning and achievement [6]. Students’ achievement depends on the value they place on schoolwork and their ability to succeed, factors that are strengthened by academic identification and school belonging. Literature also supports the quantitative findings that perceptions of utility value of science classes predicted students’ later involvement and identification with science classes [53].

In their identification with academics model the theorist emphasize that when students strongly identify with academics, motivation and performance are enhanced, especially when schoolwork is viewed as meaningful [34][39]. While future-oriented socialization and parental emphasis on the value of schoolwork were reported to increase identification and achievement, indirectly validating the role of perceived utility [54]. School belonging enhanced reading literacy [43] mediated by mastery goal orientation [10]. The school disciplinary climate (supportive, harsh or strict) moderated the relationship indicating poor outcomes in schools with poorer discipline. Supporting the findings of the current study where the role of organization and planning on achievement was fully explained through identification. Indicating that high motivation can lead to weaker results if the school context is not supportive or the students are not identified with academics. This helps to explain the results while highlighting the importance of social context and personal factors in students’ achievement.

Finn and Voelkl as cited in Virtanen models assert that school identification enhances classroom engagement, which directly improves academic outcomes [11]. This shows that perceived instrumentality strengthens identification, which in turn influences achievement. Research shows that valuing school activities encourages participation and leads to better grades [11]. However, Steele’s and Osborne’s work shows that students may disengage from academics when performance is poor, even if they value education highlighting the vulnerability of identification in translating utility into achievement [35][49]. MacCann and Roberts highlighted that conscientiousness, mediated the relationship between planning and achievement, implying that organization and planning do not predict achievement independently of identification [52].

In line with the disidentification hypothesis [33], these results indicate that when academic identification is undermined, organisational skills alone are insufficient to sustain achievement. The results demonstrated that these skills may not be enough in predicting academic success without supportive motivational and social context.

Findings lead to the following recommendations for research. This study adopted survey methodology. It will be important to carry out similar studies using experimental methods (e.g., randomised controlled trials) to establish the effect of instrumentality on achievement. Since the study established that study time management improves and achievement and literature suggests that it does so in supportive environments, this should be examined as social context was outside the scope of the current study. Recommendations for practice includes; Policy makers need to incorporate the learning of multiple skill sets such as time management skills apart from regular schoolwork in the curriculum. Curriculum developers and teachers need to make learning relatable to promote school identification and school administrators should strengthen school career guidance programs, mentorship programs, identity-building programs to build academic identity and foster positive peer norms as well as promote study time management skills and grit training through Life Skills education.