Phonological contrastive analysis is part of a rich linguistic tradition which aims to establish systematic comparisons between phonological systems of different languages in order to highlight their similarities and differences that may impact foreign language learning. According to R. Lado, “the main hypothesis of contrastive theory is that phonological differences between mother tongue and target language are sources of articulation and pronunciation errors [3].” This theory lays foundations for phonological didactics anticipating learners’ difficulties through a mapping of contrasted segments. However, the contrastive analysis of Lado has been criticized for its limited predictive nature, the lack of distinction between linguistic differences and real learning difficulties, as well as for its static approach to languages. These criticisms have led to revisions and alternative approaches that recognize the influence of mother tongue but replace it in a more complex learning framework [4]. The criticism marked the shift from a behaviourist and structuralist view of learning (HAC) to a more cognitive approach, focusing on the learner’s internal mechanisms. In a more modern perspective, J. C. Catford extends this approach by emphasising precise articulatory analysis of sounds: “Each segment must be described according to the phonatory organs involved, the manner and place of articulation, which allows for anticipating not only erroneous production, but also appropriate correction strategies.” [5]. This articulatory phonetic framework offers a functional and physiological look at sound production, essential for understanding gaps between Kabiye and French.

Furthermore, the verb-tonal method developed by J. Froehlich emphasizes the importance of prosodic control: “Intonation, rhythm and melody play a central role in the correction of foreigners learning a language, especially to correct phonetic disorders and improve auditory perception” [6]. This approach is based on a structured phonetic rehabilitation combining listening, production and conscious control of the voice channel. It is here considered as a major pedagogical tool to be coupled with contrastive analysis. Finally, the use of opposition in minimal pairs, a concept put forward by A. Martinet allows a fine differentiation of phonemes to strengthen auditory perception and correct production: “minimal pair reveals to learners the difference in meaning carried by a single phonological segment, thus promoting a phonemic awareness necessary for acquisition” [7]. This method finds a direct application in the Kabiyè-French context where certain segmental oppositions pose problems.

This study is based on reliable documentary data from descriptive work done on Kabiyè language by Lébikaza [8] on one hand ((see Table1 and Table2); and on French by Gblem-Poidi & Kantchoa [9] on the other hand (see Table 3 and Table4). In case of conflicts, the preferred descriptions are those corroborated by at least two sources or supported by recent acoustic data. The “common” sounds are classified by strict identity, “divergent” by absence or opposition of trait. The synthesis proceeds by triangulation: comparative matrices (Tables5-8) crossing articulatory, acoustic and functional characteristics, ensuring reproducible transparency and robust prediction of difficulties. The selection of pedagogical strategies is based on the critical review of phonetic methods, associated with a contextualised adaptation to the specificities of Kabiyè learners.

The comparison of French and Kabiyè sounds shows common sounds as presented as follows:

Table 5.Common consonants of French and Kabiyè.

Source: [10].

Table 6.Common vowels of French and Kabiyè.

Source: [10].

French and Kabiyè divergent sounds tables are presented as follows:

Table 7. Divergent consonants of French and Kabiyè.

Source: [10].

The table below presents divergent vowels of both languages.

Table 8. Divergent vowels of French and Kabiyè.

Source: [10].

With regard to the tables above, one can see that Kabiyè and French share several sounds. In this case, G. Gnambi points out that “some occlusive consonants like /p/, /t/, /k/ are found in both languages with fairly similar articulatory characteristics”, which facilitates the simultaneous acquisition of these sounds by Kabiyè speakers when learning French [11]. Similarly, W. Koula observes that “the presence of unrounded anterior oral vowels /i/ and /e/, as well as posterior vowels /u/ and /o/, forms a common, reassuring phonological basis for phonetic transfer” [1]. These correspondences constitute solid points of support in learning French pronunciation.

On the other hand, Kabiyè and French present notable differences in their segmental inventory, which generate specific difficulties. According to J. Mensah, ‘Kabiyè language does not contain certain fricative sounds characteristic of French, notably /ʃ/ and /ʒ/, nor the uvular consonant /ʁ/, which is difficult for Kabiyè speakers to master’ [2]. Regarding vowels, L. Salifou underlines that “Kabiyè language has fewer and less distinct nasal vowels than those of French, which can cause confusion in the perception and production of nasalisation” [12]. These divergences increase articulatory complexity by Kabiyè language learners. Furthermore, the tonal nature of Kabiyè language contrasts with French tonic accent, influencing phonetic segments’ realisation. K. Yao explains that “this prosodic difference can accentuate phonological gap, affecting phonemic segmentation and correct integration of French sounds” [13].

The correct acquisition of French phonological segments by Kabiyè speakers requires a conscious and targeted mobilization of the phonatory organs. These organs, including tongue, lips, soft palate, vocal cords and jaw. An awareness of their articulatory role is therefore essential to correct recurrent phonetic errors. According to J. C. Catford, “the effectiveness of phonetic teaching relies largely on the ability of the learner to feel and control the movements of the phonatory organs involved” [5]. In this context, the teacher must initiate exercises that lead the learner to locate and identify the phonatory organ involved in each problematic sound. For example, to produce the uvular consonant [ʁ], it is crucial to train the back of the tongue to vibrate against the uvula. Placement exercises such as repeated pronunciation of simple words such as “roi”, “route”, or “regard” accompanied by visual or tactile explanations facilitate this acquisition. The mobilisation of lips is another fundamental axis, particularly for the differentiation between rounded anterior vowels /y/ (as in “lune”) and rounded posterior vowels /u/ (as in “loup”). The learner is encouraged to practice isolated lip rounding exercises, followed by labio-vocal combination, in order to feel well the difference between rounded and unrounded lips. Techniques such as mirror to observe the position of lips or a light touch of lips allow immediate feedback. Soft palate plays a key role in nasalization which, is a characteristic that is not very marked in Kabiye. Exercises targeting the sensation of lifting or lowering the soft palate strengthen the mastery of nasalisation, for example, by alternating the pronunciation of words like ‘bon’ ([bɔ̃]) and “beau” ([bo]). Through these exercises, the learner develops a kinesthetic awareness of the vocal apparatus essential for a correct production of nasal phonemes.

Finally, the coordination of different phonatory organs by mastering the jaw and breathing is often worked through repetitive articulatory sequences, such as repetition of slow-paced sentences to refine movement control. These phonetic exercises not only stimulate segmental production, but also promote the stability of articulatory gestures in spontaneous speech. In sum, actively involving the phonatory organs in a progressive and varied training process allows kabiyè learners to overcome their phonetic difficulties in French, by developing better body awareness and a fine mastery of complex articulatory gestures.

Verb-tonal method, developed by J. Froehlich, constitutes an integrated approach centered on the mastery of prosodic parameters, namely intonation, rhythm and melody, which play a fundamental role in the correct phonetic production. This method is particularly suitable for Kabiyè speakers learning French, as it allows to correct difficulties related to deep differences in prosodic patterns between the two languages. The first step of the method consists of tonal and rhythmic segmentation exercises. For example, in the simple sentence “Je vais à la maison”, the learner is led to isolate stressed syllables, such as “vais” and “maison”, and to exert variations of intensity and duration on these syllables. This helps to develop sharper intonation contours and better syllabic synchronization. In another example, during the interrogative sentence “Tu viens demain?”, the learner learns to perceive and reproduce final elevation of the voice specific to interrogative sentence, in contrast with the declarative sentence, thus strengthening the differentiation of speech modes. For the correction of the uvular consonant /ʁ/, which is not found in Kabiyè language, the verb-tonal method uses modulation of pitch and articulatory timing. For example, when pronouncing words like “rouge”, “rire” or “regard”, the learner performs exercises combining the vibration of the back of the tongue against the uvula with specific rhythmic and melodic gestures, assisted by a mirror or haptic feedback in order to feel the uvular vibration. This approach aims to replace the rolled consonant /r/ often wrongly substituted among Kabiyè learners, with a production in accordance with standard French. This method also pays particular attention to work on the rounded anterior vowels /y/ and rounded posterior vowels /u/, which often pose a problem. For example, in statements like “lune” versus “loup”, the teacher guides the learner to modulate the height and length of vowels while controlling the position of the lips via a mirror. Mini-dialogues and alternating exercises reinforce the discrimination between these close sounds. This prosodic work improves both perception and production in a communicative context.

Furthermore, the application of the verb-tonal method includes the use of minimal pairs to work on fine distinctions between phonemes. For example, pairs such as /e/ versus /ø/ in simple sentence contexts allow the learner to perceive and stabilise tonal and timbre differences, while training production with an emphasis on prosodic contours. This phonological awareness is essential to avoid lexical and articulatory confusions. A crucial aspect of the method is the setting up of feedback loops where the learner registers, listens to their productions, and then receives guided feedback from the teacher on the prosodic aspects to be improved. For example, after a series of repetitions, the learner can compare their intonation with a native model, which promotes autonomous and lasting joint correction.

Finally, the verb-tonal method integrates exercises of active listening and temporal discrimination, allowing the learner to reproduce complex prosodic patterns, for example during oral dictations or dialogues where liaison, pause and emphasis are decisive. These activities promote immediate implementation in real communication situations. Thanks to this holistic approach, the verb-tonal method is not limited to segmental correction but proceeds to a global phonetic rehabilitation, combining perception, production and body awareness. It is therefore particularly effective in helping Kabiyè speakers overcome their phonological difficulties and achieve better intelligibility in French.

The opposition in minimal pairs constitutes a fundamental pedagogical tool in phonological learning, because it highlights the minimal differences between two phonemes allowing to distinguish distinct words.

Let’s take a 10-minute exercise for primary school: the teacher plays the recording of the minimal pair “tu” (/ty/) vs. “tou(t)” (/tu/), by showing images (a person vs. an entire object). Students, in front of a collective mirror, alternately repeat, observing the protuberance advanced labial for /y/ (lips pinched forward); against the posterior neutral rounding for /u/ (lips rounded without advance). They conclude with a playful discrimination: listen and point the correct image, strengthening perception and production in realistic communicative context, to be repeated three times a week to anchor the distinction among Kabiyè speakers.

It helps learners to develop a fine phonemic awareness, essential for a correct acquisition of new sounds and to avoid lexical confusions. In the specific context of Kabiyè learners, for whom some French phonemes do not exist or are perceived differently, minimal pairs allow focusing attention on crucial oppositions. A. Martinet explains that “the direct confrontation of two words distinguished by a single sound allows increased auditory discrimination and more targeted production of contrasted segments” [7]. A concrete example concerns the distinction between rounded anterior vowels /y/ and rounded posterior vowels /u/, difficult for Kabiyè speakers. A minimal pair such as “tu” [ty] and “tout” [tu] highlights this essential phonetic difference. The teacher can have these words repeated to the learner, emphasising the position of the lips and the quality of the vowel, accompanied by visual (mirror) and auditory exercises (listening to native models).

Another example concerns the palatal fricative consonants, absent from kabiyè, with the minimal pair “chat” [ʃ a] “sac” [sa]. By repeating these pairs, the learner avoids to substitute /ʃ/ to /s/. Auditory discrimination activities, combined with specific articulatory exercises, reinforce this acquisition.

Finally, the development of catalogues of minimum pairs adapted to the phonological profile of Kabiye-French, enriched with examples and multimedia supports, allows for structuring the phonetic progression. These resources facilitate the learner’s autonomy in their process of phonological correction and in their awareness of crucial contrasts. In sum, the targeted use of oppositions in minimal pairs constitutes a powerful strategy to overcome the phonetic difficulties related to the gaps between Kabiyè and French. It combines improvement of phonological perception, articulatory correction and lexical enrichment, essential elements for a successful and lasting acquisition.