Climate change alters pollutant dispersion, disrupting ecosystems and human health. Urbanization and industrialization elevate PM_2.5 levels, complicating sustainable development [18]. CO₂ concentrations, now accounted 40% higher than pre-industrial levels, reflect accelerated fossil fuel use since 1970 [19]. The relationship between air pollution and climate change is well acknowledged by the scientific community. The “greenhouse effect” refers to the process by which heat from the sun is stopped from escaping into space and instead stays in the Earth’s atmosphere. These activities are responsible for more than 64% of the global warming caused by humans. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) can linger in the atmosphere for many years, leading to long-lasting impacts on ecosystems and human health. As human activities release more of these gases, a vicious cycle ensues, further preventing the sun’s rays from escaping. While CO₂ persists for extended periods, other gases contributions are known as short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) in relation to climate change. Despite their shorter atmospheric lifespan, SLCPs such as methane, ground-level ozone, and black carbon (PM_2.5) have a more potent warming effect than CO₂ and cause significant environmental harm. Given the link between greenhouse gases and air pollution, reducing fossil fuel use would improve various aspects of human health.

The impacts of change in climate vary across different regions of the world. Consequences include shifts in temperature, rainfall patterns, and drought frequency. These changes affect both human populations and ecosystems, with species unable to adapt or migrate towards facing extinction. The most pronounced temperature increases are expected in terrestrial areas and Polar Regions. As temperatures rise, global average precipitation is projected to increase, though unevenly. High-latitude regions are likely to experience heavier rainfall, including snowfall near the poles, leading to increased flooding. In contrast, equatorial regions may face reduced rainfall. In Africa, an estimated 75 to 250 million people are at risk of drought, which could severely impact food security due to declining crop yields. Coastal areas and islands worldwide are also vulnerable to rising sea levels. In Nigeria, for example, regions along the Niger Delta, Benue, and Niger rivers are particularly vulnerable to excessive floods.

Diseases are categorized as communicable and transmissible if they show visible symptoms. According to [20], they are caused by infection and the growth of pathogens within an organism host. Depending on the type of infection and its symptoms, direct and indirect contact between people is the main way that infectious diseases are spread. Weather can also have an impact. People can get infected by coming into contact with an animal that is harboring a pathogenic organism. Pandemic diseases have been a major source of death worldwide, particularly for young children and in underdeveloped countries. Infectious diseases caused by pathogens, including parasites and protozoa, transmitted by hematological arthropods are referred to as vector-borne diseases. Black flies, bedbugs, and biting midges are examples of hematophagous vectors, kissing bugs, and fleas. The range of vector-borne illnesses also includes sandflies, ticks, and mosquitoes. Change in climate can significantly affect how infectious illnesses spread through vectors. Temperature, humidity, changes in rainfall patterns, soil water, and rise in sea level are some of the variables that might cause this. Determining how these factors might impact likelihoods of diseases carried by vectors is a complicated procedure. Seasonal trends are common for vector-borne illnesses, and the effects of rainfall and temperature are well known. Certain areas also show notable annual fluctuations in vector-borne illnesses, such as malaria, which are at least partially attributable to climatic conditions. The impact of change in climate on vector-borne illness distribution and transmission has been the subject of much research.

Lung illness and other respiratory system components are impacted by respiratory disorders; causes include infections, tobacco use, and exposure to asbestos, radon, and other air pollutants. Common conditions include asthma, occupational pulmonary diseases, pulmonary hypertension, and chronic obstructive lung disease. Respiratory health is directly threatened by climate change can exacerbate pre-existing diseases or increase exposure to risk factors. Particularly at risk are people who already have respiratory or cardiovascular diseases [21]. Climate change impacts multiple aspects of human life, including weather patterns, air and water quality, food security, and economic stability. For example, temperature increase can disrupt biological and physical systems globally, leading to serious respiratory and other health issues. Elevated sea levels are due to the melting of polar ice caps, depriving some regions of freshwater and causing water degradation and population displacement. Mass migrations due to climate-induced disruptions, along with extreme weather events like heatwaves and harsh winters, further exacerbate respiratory health risks [22].

The Pan American Health Organization defines non-infectious ailments, often known as non-communicable diseases, as those that usually require continuous care and treatment, have long-term health impacts, and are not primarily caused by a serious infection. CO₂, CH₄, and NO_x concentrations have significantly increased due to socioeconomic causes and the world’s growing population. These gases are mostly produced by burning fossil fuels. The effect that these gases produce after being released into the atmosphere traps solar heat and raises global temperatures. The frequency of natural disasters, including extreme flooding, droughts, storms, and heat waves, will increase as the earth’s temperature rises. Majority of low- and middle-income nations are experiencing the current and anticipated increase in NCD-related mortality [23]. These diseases are brought on by infections such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa; compounds released into the environment by human activity; and poisons produced by cyanobacteria, sometimes referred to as blue-green algae. These toxins can be ingested by contaminated fish and shellfish or through drinking water that has been contaminated.

Diseases due to heat stress are dangerous illnesses brought on by the body’s inability to withstand high temperatures. The typical temperature of the human body is between 36 and 37 degrees Celsius. Heat stress, which includes heat cramps, fatigue, syncope, and stroke, is caused when the body is unable to control its temperature. This disorder manifests as confusion, difficulty speaking, unconsciousness, excessive perspiration, dry skin or profuse perspiration, convulsions, and extremely high body temperature. One is susceptible to heat stroke when their body temperature exceeds 40.5˚C. Long-term exposure to intense heat can cause heat-related diseases, particularly when combined with high humidity and physically demanding activities. Change in climate is the main factor contributing to heat stress.

Cardiovascular events, like heart attacks, strokes, etc., can be made more likely in people who are already at risk for them by either directly or indirectly exposing human health to heart illness due to poor air quality brought on by heat waves or particle pollution. Due to air pollution, the number of mortalities from harmful chemical substances has increased. As a result, these pollutants affect the respiratory, cardiovascular, and blood vessel systems, resulting in serious illnesses.

Over the past century, greenhouse gas emissions have steadily increased, which has caused these gases to gradually build up in the Earth’s atmosphere. Climatologists prophesied that further buildup will lead to a gradual global warming, a phenomenon that had been predicted by [24]. Although the severity of climate change consequences is expected to differ by region, there are still questions about the exact scope of these differences, necessitating more research. Beyond the effects of change in climate, the main causes of deforestation and land use in Gambia are infrastructure development, such as housing estate projects and peri-urban settlements, timber production, indiscriminate urbanization, and urban growth. According to recent data, The Gambia’s urban population proportion has been steadily rising, rising from 41% in 1993 to 62% in 2019. High fertility and low death rates drove population growth, which inexorably necessitated the development of land areas for settlement, sometimes encroaching on agricultural and forest ecosystems. Therefore, these land use changes are expected to have a broad impact on the quality of water resource availability, as well as on soil erosion dynamics. Since 1940s, modifications brought about by humans to the biophysical features of Gambian territory have been common, and as a result, about half of the country’s forest lands have been lost. The agriculture industry in The Gambia contributes significantly to carbon emissions because of unsustainable manure management and rice production practices [25]. The Gambia’s forest cover has shrunk by more than twenty-two thousand hectares in the past thirty years, in which eighteen percent, accounting for more than 20,000 metric tons of CO₂, have been released as a result [26]. Significant differences in the distribution of vegetation along the major river have been found in recent studies done by [27], which looked at the dynamics of land cover throughout Gambia. According to [28], for example, the North Bank Region of Gambia has significantly drier agricultural lands than other regions because of ongoing drought condition. The Gambia is among African countries most susceptible to adverse consequences of change in climate-related calamities, with three-quarters of the nation situated below 10 meters above mean sea level and around half of the entire land below 20 meters. If global temperatures and sea levels continue to increase significantly, a large area of the nation may be submerged [29][30]. Adopting a variety of climate-smart agricultural techniques is crucial to improving The Gambia’s resilience to climate change. Among these is agroforestry, which combines crops and trees to boost soil fertility, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration, all of which aid in adaptation and mitigation. Furthermore, water-saving methods like solar-powered drip irrigation systems and rainwater collection can greatly increase water efficiency and lessen drought susceptibility [31]. The agriculture sector’s growing use of sustainable energy sources is a step in the right direction towards lowering greenhouse gases emissions due to the industry’s heavy reliance on fossil fuels for a variety of processes, including irrigation, drying, harvesting, cooling, grinding, and transportation. About 30% of global greenhouse gases emissions is caused by this and methane released by animal farming [32]. Since agriculture accounts for 24% of the nation’s GDP, integrating renewable energy technologies into the industry will benefit the economy as well as the environment [33]. Moreover, irrigation powered by solar, sustainable energy sources, including animal wastes, biofuels, etc., has brought about promoting a sustainable economy [34]. Dependability can be increased via hybrid sustainable energy systems that include sun, wind, biogas, etc., especially in remote areas [35]. Renewable energy-powered precision agriculture technologies can further optimize input and water consumption, improving climate resilience and yields [36].

The study was carried out in the Kombo North, in The Gambia, during Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC) road construction along the Senegambia axis to the airport junction at Yundum. The West Coast Region in the Gambia was reorganized and renamed by the Brikama Local Government Area (BLGA) but still maintained the same size of land. The Gambia’s Kombo North District is precisely plotted in zone 28P of the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system. Its precise location inside the global grid is provided by its UTM Northern coordinate of 1478073.3871203 and its UTM Eastern coordinate of 644384.62981753. Additionally, the position of Kombo North District is encoded in the GeoHash system as edkhh9rdqryh, a compact representation that is helpful for a variety of geospatial applications. The coordinates of Kombo North District are latitude 13˚22'0.012'' N and longitude −16˚40'0.012''E. The Gambia West Coast Region 8 (WCR-8) is 183.70 kilometers square, with a population density of 1847.50 cubic grams per centimeter, and currently has 339,377 residents, both male and female.

A total of one thousand and eighty (1080) samples consisting of fifteen (15) different air pollutant parameters were collected with an air meter and analyzed for a total of six (6) months. Data collection was done in the early hours of the morning between 8:00 am and 10:00 am on each sampling day. Data were collected once a week, four times a month, making a total of twenty-four (24) field visits for samples. For each parameter, a triplicate reading (measurement) was taken, before the average value for every interval of six minutes during the field visit, for the duration of the study. Each air pollution parameter recorded a total of forty-five samples for one month; in six months, it accounted for a total sample size as expressed below.

A sample size (N) of one thousand and eighty (1080) was obtained during the sampling period. Fifteen (15) different air pollutants were recorded by the air quality meter. A second digital thermometer was also utilized to measure the temperature over the six-month data-collecting period in conjunction with the Model-460 DG draft gauge electronic. Fifteen air parameters were measured in a given week; each air parameter was measured three times (triplicates) at an interval of six minutes before the average reading was taken, resulting in a final set of forty-five (45) parameters. Since data collection was done once in a week, four times in a month. Each month data, gave a total of one hundred and eighty (180) samples (i.e., 4 × 45). For the whole six-month sampling periods, it will amount to a total of one thousand and eighty that is (6 × 180 = 1080).

Measures of ambient air pollution were assessed using a Thermometer++ app which uses phones sensors to measure both indoor and outdoor temperature, humidity, pressure and wind; as well as an electronic air meter. The majority of air pollutant parameters that were found were examined and put through the pollution standard index (PSI) as a guide to determine the impacts of the concentration on human health with reference to our respiratory system and atmospheric ozone. Color serves as a signal for identifying air pollutants in the area. Even though it is used to classify them based on the color displayed on the air meter screen. Green color indicates (good) and ranges from 0 - 50; yellow color represents (fair or moderate) and ranges from 51 - 100; orange color (unhealthy) ranges from 101 - 150; red color (not healthy) ranges from 151 - 200; purple color (very unhealthy) ranges from 201 - 300; and maroon (hazardous) ranges from 301 and above.

This study employed a central tendency and dispersion trial to standardize and classify each contaminant update [43]. Information gathered about different air pollutants falls into different classes depending on their levels of concentration, and comparisons were also made in terms of color detections displayed on a detector screen during data collection periods to know their levels of effect on humans, land, and the environment. The country’s selected study area demonstrates notable shifts in the presence of air pollutants in terms of class/category, air color, index value of pollution and levels of indication according to [44] (See Table 1).

Table 1. Categories of air color and air quality.

Results obtained from data analysis are shown in Table 2 above, indicated five main contaminants; such as carbon monoxide, Ozone, ammonia and particle matters as the main cause of climate change effects the environment due to their pollutant level of concentrations. Carbon monoxide found in category 6, with maroon color indication, showed health hazard issues to humans, particulate matter 10, found in category 5, had purple color indication, revealed very unhealthy health challenges to humans. Particulate matter 2.5, ozone and ammonia, all falls in category 3 respectively, with an orange coloration indication, meant unhealthy for some sensitive group of people. However, other pollutants with green and yellow coloration indications, do not pose any threat to humans because they appear green or yellow in color, indicating good, fair or moderate.

Table 2. Spatial assessments variation of global warming/climate change impacts on human, land use management in West Coast Region in The Gambia, West Africa.

Here, n = 24, all displayed values are expressed as mean ± S.E (Range).

The two main factors contributed to global warming/climate change that have an impact on people’s health were elucidated by the US Environmental Protection Agency. These factors are the prevalence of pre-existing health issues or unexpected health issues or new locations. Pest-related illnesses (including Lyme disease), illnesses linked to food and water, injuries, fatalities, and heart and respiratory conditions are some of these impacts on people’s health. Many climatic consequences can be experienced simultaneously by people at varying stages of their lives, highlighting the fact that exposure, sensitivity, and adaptation capability are the three main characteristics that determine an individual’s susceptibility to the effects of climate change.

Figure 1Figure 1 above, illustrates the trends in which global warming variability leading to climate change occurred, and Figure 2Figure 2 showed the risks and color indications of these air pollutants indication that results to global warming/climate change. Green & yellow color indicates low risk, while other colors signify escalating threats. Africa experienced the sharpest rise insecurity in aspect of food during 2014 to 2017, as well as the state of food security and nutrition in the world 2018 according to [50].

The threat posed by climate change to world health is increasing, necessitating urgent action [51]. Mitigation (reducing emissions) and adaptation (managing impacts) are critical. Transitioning to sustainable energy and improving efficiency of energy can reduce air pollutants, thereby enhancing public health.

The diagram below in Figure 3Figure 3 outlines strategies such as carbon pricing, sustainable energy policies, deforestation frameworks, and public awareness campaigns.

Figure 3. Strategy for mitigation and adaptation to climate change.

Worldwide coordination, cleaner technologies, and energy efficiency standards (e.g., DAC, CAFE, and LEED certification) have reduced energy consumption by 10% [52].