It is commonly accepted that the planet Earth will host 9 billion human beings by 2050. Feeding a growing global population with more demanding consumers will require an increase in food production, which will inevitably put significant pressure on already limited resources such as arable land, oceans, water, and energy. If production remains in its current form, the increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, as well as deforestation and environmental degradation, will continue ([2]).

According to the FAO report published in 2011, this organization estimates that it will not be possible to feed everyone through traditional livestock farming of cows, pigs, chickens, etc. There is not enough space to produce the cereals needed to feed the livestock, and this farming has always been accused of its significant greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, it is urgent to find alternative solutions to conventional sources of animal protein in our diet, and edible insects are identified for humans and animals as an alternative source of interesting proteins and high-quality nutrients compared to meat and fish. Additionally, the production of greenhouse gases by most insects is likely to be lower than that of conventional livestock farming; for example, pigs produce 10 to 100 times more greenhouse gases per kilogram than insects ([10]).

Entomophagy, which is the consumption of insects by humans, has seen its importance recognized by the FAO in recent years to address the major challenge of feeding the current and future population in sufficient quantity and quality while respecting the environment and integrating sustainability aspects.

Despite the reported benefits of entomophagy, it is also necessary to note that the perception of the taste of food is a subjective perception influenced by multiple factors, both physiological (taste, retronasal olfaction, trigeminal chemical sensitivity) and psychosocial (culture, hedonic messages, representations...) ([26]).

The consumption of insects in European countries is considered a threat to their psychological and cultural identity. Eating insects is seen as becoming contaminated, subhuman, and becoming someone else ([22]). Insect eaters are considered primitive, barbaric, and desperate ([9]).

With globalization and civilization, the influence of Western culture is considered one of the factors responsible for the decline of entomophagy in several parts of the world ([23]). This phenomenon is part of a generalized trend: the globalization of lifestyles, which is defined as the adoption of a universal cultural system largely based on Western values and customs; it therefore encompasses eating habits that increasingly tend towards the consumption of fast or packaged food to the detriment of traditional foods.

This trend would be associated, among other things, with the increase in income and urbanization, which bring changes in lifestyle and new food needs such as faster-to-prepare food. Consequently, traditional eating habits like entomophagy are generally better preserved in rural than urbanized areas ([23]). They are often abandoned when people migrate to the city ([6]), and some cultures turn to another way of life and new eating practices with the hope of discarding local practices.

The city of Kananga, being a city that hosts several ethnic groups that either favor or do not favor entomophagy, faces the threat of Western culture, especially among the youth who, for them, being fashionable simply means behaving like civilized, evolved people. This practice is nothing more than dressing like white people, eating, and doing everything like white people. This can be facilitated by media culture (use of social networks, television...). Imported products thus become more valuable than those produced locally. On one hand, we witness the effects of globalization with new technology influencing the eating habits of young people, but also in the menus of various renowned restaurants in the said city, insects have an insignificant or even non-existent part. This highlights that entomophagy (culture or ancestral heritage) is increasingly losing its place in urban food plans, despite its health, environmental, and especially sustainable development benefits. On the other hand, we note that the ruralization of urban areas can in turn favor this practice as we observe in the city of Kananga, where rural areas tend to preserve ancestral practices. Villagers who leave their villages to live in the city often bring their habits with them (even if they often tend to forget them, while wanting to conform to the lifestyle of city dwellers considered better).

Given this observation, the existing empirical literature review indicates that apart from cultural aspects, insect consumption is influenced by other factors such as age, level of education, knowledge of the advantages of these insects... ([13]; [21]; [19]). Following the divergence of results observed in the literature as well as the lack of empirical studies on the Greater Kasai area, this study aims to examine the different motivations related to insect consumption by households, the main difficulties limiting their consumption, as well as the most consumed species. To achieve this, the following main question is raised:

What are the determining factors of insect consumption by households in the city of Kananga? particularly caterpillars, winged termites, weevil larvae, locusts, and crickets.

Specifically, the following questions will be addressed:

What is the proportion of households that consume insects in the city of Kananga? What is the most consumed species?

Entomophagy is a common practice in more than 130 countries. This diet is mainly found in Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania ([6]). It is important to note that urbanization provides a conducive environment for the advent of Western culture. Thus, the acceptance or rejection of entomophagy is a matter of culture. This reflection is supported by [6], who believes that there are significant cultural barriers that prevent the expansion of edible insects, as each ethnic group is very specific about the species of insects to eat. According to [6], entomophagy is often abandoned when people migrate to the city, and some cultures turn to another way of life and new dietary practices with the hope of discarding local practices. For him, entomophagy is not practiced by the majority of the population, and many feel a certain aversion to the idea of eating insects, even in areas where entomophagy is practiced. In several African populations, the consumption of insects is also decreasing. The insect-free diet of Western countries is gaining popularity ([30]).

The literature notes a decrease in entomophagy again associated with the Westernization of the diet, the importation of low-cost ultra-processed foods, and the projected image of insect consumption as a primitive practice ([3]). However, this reflection is not supported by [14], as their study conducted in Brazzaville shows that the consumption of Imbrasia truncata caterpillars is practiced by more than half of the population (65.8%). A similar figure is also mentioned by the study conducted by [13], their results show that 71.6% of households consume insects; also for the study conducted by [19], which attests that 60.46% of respondents are entomophagous. [28] also affirm in their study that 97.6% of households consume weevil larvae, 63.97% consume various caterpillars, 77.94% consume winged termites, 34.56% consume locusts, and only 10.29% consume crickets. The study conducted by [15] also attests that 82.71% of households consume termites in the Republic of Congo.

Regarding the factors motivating the consumption of insects, knowledge about the nutritional value of insects by households is the main motivation ([14]; [28]; [13]). But also taste, dietary habits. Not to mention certain therapeutic reasons, for example, weevil larvae are used to combat acute respiratory distress in infants, red ants are incorporated into dishes consumed to combat, among other things, sexual weakness in men ([28]).

Among the factors limiting the consumption of insects, many studies identify seasonality or scarcity, as mentioned by ([14]; [28]; [15]). Regarding the factors limiting the consumption of weevil larvae, the sale price and unavailability are noted in the study by [15]. For households that do not consume insects, the main reasons mentioned are mainly dietary habits, fear, custom, disgust according to the study conducted by [14], and the same study confirms that dietary prohibitions have a negligible influence on the consumption rate of caterpillars, religious prohibitions or other types of ethnic prohibitions are also mentioned ([21]).

Regarding the factors determining the consumption of insects, the study conducted by [21] attests that gender, age, and level of education have no influence on whether or not to consume insects.

All social categories consume caterpillars. In Latin America (Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador), people have extensive knowledge of insects with which they traditionally compose their meals ([3]). In Mexico, for example, fried grasshopper is a very popular food consumed by everyone (Rad). For some Amazonian communities, during the rainy seasons, 60% of their protein intake comes from insects ([32]). In Asia (South Asia and Southeast Asia), insects are consumed both in urban and rural areas ([32]). In Japan, several insect-based dishes are regularly consumed, such as “hachi-no-ko,” a dish containing grilled bee larvae placed on a bed of rice ([3]). On the African continent, insects are abundantly found in family gastronomy.

Insects represent between 10% and 15% of the diet in certain regions of Africa ([12]). In Australia, Aboriginal communities use insects for their sweet flavor (e.g., ants) and for the fat they add to recipes and dishes (e.g., larvae) ([3]). Additionally, insects account for up to 30% of the protein intake for some tribes ([3]). Thus, insects are a staple food in local diets. They are consumed for their taste and texture, not due to a lack of other food sources.

In countries where insects are consumed, they are considered tasty and nutritious. They are seen as a pleasure. It is reported that they are viewed not only as food but also as a delicacy ([3]). Some species of insects (e.g., mopane caterpillars) can fetch high prices and are considered luxury items. The regions with the highest number of edible insects are Mexico, northern South America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. However, a decrease in their consumption is observed globally.

Over the past 200 years, the consumption of insects among Australian Aboriginals has decreased due to the arrival of the Western diet (changes in their diet), changes in social structures (the respective roles of men and women within their group have changed), and demographic changes ([3]).

Europe and North America are the continents where entomophagy is least present ([16]), and the negative attitude of eaters towards insect consumption is cultural. However, following the publication of the FAO report in 2013, the idea of insect consumption began to emerge in Europe and North America.

There are now more and more businesses, restaurants, and food trucks offering insects to consumers. For example, in London, the Archipelago restaurant serves fried crickets with quinoa and spinach. In 2015, a grocery chain in the Netherlands, with more than 500 stores, integrated burgers and croquettes made from worms ([29]). In New York, Toloache offers grasshopper tacos, and in California, the Don Bugito food truck offers a menu composed entirely of insects. In the United States, interest is mainly in the private sector, where a large number of cricket-based products are being developed, such as protein bars, flour, and cookies ([29]). In supermarkets, there are also more and more insect-based products such as cricket powder, cricket pasta, insect bars, and insect crackers.

Providing definitive figures on the number of edible insect species worldwide is difficult for several reasons. First, an uninitiated person cannot describe an insect according to Linnaeus’ classification, making official evaluations difficult. Things are complicated by the use of several vernacular names for the same insect species in many cultures. By using only Latin names and making the necessary corrections for synonyms, Yde Jongema from WUR undertook a global inventory using literature, including in Western countries and temperate zones. In April 2012, his list included 1900 edible insect species, with the most important being in the orders of Coleoptera (beetles), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants), Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets), Isoptera (termites), Heteroptera (true bugs), and Homoptera (cicadas) ([20]).

Lower estimates exist. [7] counted “less than” 1000 species, while [25] counted “at least” 1681 species. Regional and national estimates have also been made: [33] identified 250 edible species in Africa; [25] noted 549 species in Mexico (although [4], noted only 177 in that country); in China, [5] listed 170 species; [27] noted 164 species in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam; finally, [24] estimated that 428 species were consumed in the Amazon basin.

In their introduction, [31] state that edible insects for humans represent an alternative source of protein that is environmentally interesting, as they are associated with low greenhouse gas emissions, high food conversion efficiency, and the ability to transform organic waste into high-value protein. This is supported by [3], who argues that the benefits of insects in terms of sustainable development will be highlighted and will represent an opportunity to present this food as a substitute for conventional animal proteins. The consumption of insects by humans, or entomophagy, thus contributes positively to the preservation of the environment and livelihoods.

[15] conclude that edible insects contribute to the diet of various rural and urban populations and constitute a very important potential in the fight against hunger and malnutrition in the world. They are also a very important potential for income and job creation for rural communities who collect, process, and market them. The economic benefits are remarkable in both rural and urban areas, as their sale allows many poor households to diversify their economic income. In this regard, [21] emphasizes that edible insects contribute to the empowerment of women and the reduction of poverty and hunger among rural populations, thus meeting at least two Millennium Development Goals.

However, the seasonality of these insects, as mentioned by [15], is an obstacle that does not allow collectors to consume them all year round and to regularly supply urban communities. This is why [1] point out that edible insects are sometimes dried to be preserved and stored in large quantities by villagers. This traditional practice thus promotes a more stable supply according to the availability of species worldwide.

Some researchers raise concerns about the safety of insects regarding the risks of inorganic contamination, infections caused by microorganisms, the transmission of zoonoses, the toxicity of certain species, the development of allergies, or others. [18] state that some species are toxic, even deadly for humans.

Similarly, [32] report cases of constipation that can lead to intestinal obstructions. To circumvent this situation, [2] note that inhabitants of rural areas who traditionally collect edible insects know very well the places and times to collect them, the plants they feed on, the dangers associated with the activity, the tools to use, and the methods for capture, preparation, storage, or transport that vary according to species and mode of exploitation. Choo, cited by [32], notes that the collection of edible insects can also have negative impacts on their habitat by influencing the ecological interactions between these different species. Trees are sometimes cut down entirely to facilitate the laying of larvae by female palm weevils, for example, which disrupts palm populations.

A study conducted in Hidalgo, Mexico, in 2009 revealed that 14 out of 30 consumed species were likely to disappear due to overexploitation, as mentioned by [25]. Here, it is now important to mention the notion of sustainability, which can only be applied by resorting to the domestication of edible insects, as stated by [23].

Examples from the Democratic Republic of Congo, a study conducted by [11], show that in the capital Kinshasa, caterpillars are the most consumed insects with an average weekly consumption of 300g per household. The author also notes that the main supply provinces for the capital are Equateur (64%) and Bandundu (24%). Four main species of caterpillars are consumed there: Cirina Forda, Imbrasia epimethea, Imbrasia ertli, Imbrasia oyemensis. In the Kwango district, caterpillars are part of the choice dishes. For local tribes (Kiyaka, Kikongo, Tchokwe), mingolo (“caterpillar”) is one of the main sources of protein in their diets. On the other hand, from an economic point of view, the trade of caterpillars to major urban centers such as Kinshasa and Kikwit provides a source of income for the inhabitants of the region, especially the most vulnerable. In this area of the DRC, the main caterpillar present is Cirina Forda. It invades wooded savanna areas between September and December ([8]).

Caterpillars are not only consumed in the Democratic Republic of Congo, but they also play the role of medicine in certain provinces of the country. For example, the Sani caterpillar (Bas-Congo), called Mibamba in Bandundu, is a species appreciated by diabetics for its bitter taste. Its host plant is Caloncoba welwitschii. This species of caterpillar can be considered a medicine. Species of the genus Linocodidae sp. and Tagoropsis jlavinata, rich in calcium, and Imbrasia epimathea, Imbrasia dione, Antheua insignata, rich in proteins, can be recommended in the diet of pregnant and breastfeeding women. The species Cinabra hyperbius and Imbrasia macrothyris, rich in iron, can be recommended for anemic people and breastfeeding women ([17]). It should also be noted that, in general, the Congolese of the Yombe ethnic group from Bas-Fleuve (Bas-Congo) do not consume caterpillars and consider them a taboo food. Some are even afraid to touch them. During the caterpillar harvesting period in their villages, the Bayombe even avoid going to the forest for fear of seeing caterpillars along the way. Among the Luba, the Tumpekete caterpillar is forbidden because it transmits diseases. According to Rega tradition in Maniema, a pregnant woman cannot consume Misaba, as it gives children large teeth. In the province of Equateur, Batikatike and Mpofumi are two species of caterpillars forbidden respectively to children and women. Malnutrition is a situation that concerns humanity today; seeking to eradicate this scourge leads to the depletion of available resources and especially goes against sustainable development. The advantages provided by insects position them as alternatives to conventional proteins. Thus, the need to promote this culture.

The followingFigure 1presents the conceptual framework of this study on the consumption choice of insects by households in Kananga.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework. Source: Authors’ own construction.

Based on the questions raised in the problem, the following hypotheses are put forward:

H1:The determining factors of insect consumption by households in Kananga are as follows:

H1a:Socio-demographic factors such as age, marital status, gender, religion, household size, and tribe are determining in the choice of insect consumption among households in Kananga.

H1b:Socio-economic factors, namely education level, occupation, income of the household head, and market availability, affect the choice of insect consumption among households in Kananga.

H1c:Health factors, such as knowledge about the nutritional benefits of insects by the household head, are very determining in the choice of insect consumption among households in Kananga.

H2: The majority of households under study consume insects.

H3: The most consumed species would be caterpillars, due to their availability on the market.

Table 1shows that overall, 94% of households consume insects. Termites (93%) are eaten more than caterpillars (89%) in Kananga. Among households that do not consume entomophagy, religious belief is the main cause for both termites and caterpillars. Regarding those who consume entomophagy, availability is the main reason for this consumption depending on whether it is termites or caterpillars. The households surveyed who consume entomophagy have a very good assessment of what generally comes from taste; but concerning the caterpillar, it is the consumption habits which are the main reason for this appreciation; and regarding the termite, it is always the taste which is the main reason.

Table 1. Characteristics linked to entomophagy consumption.

Source: Results from surveys.

Table 2 shows that the consumption of larvae, locusts, and crickets are respectively 87%, 26%, and 93% in Kananga households. Among households that do not consume insects, the majority do not consume larvae, locusts and crickets for religious, habitual and religious reasons respectively. The availability of insects is the main reason for consumption of larvae, locusts, and crickets. Concerning the assessment of the consumption of insects, it is very good for households which consume the larvae; but good for households that consume locusts and crickets. This appreciation is due to taste, eating habits, and liking for larvae, locusts, and crickets respectively.

Table 2. Characteristics linked to entomophagy consumption (continued).

Source: Results from surveys.

Table 3. Probit model results and marginal effects.

Legend: ***significant at 1%, **significant at 5%, *significant at 10%. Source: Results from Stata 15 software analyses.

The results of the Probit regression show in Table 3 attest that caterpillar consumption increases with the variables marital status, sex of the head of household, knowledge of nutritional intake, and income of the head of household. And it decreases with the religion variable.

Concerning the consumption of termites, it increases with the variables marital status, sex of the head of household, and knowledge of nutritional intake. And it decreases with the religion variable.

Regarding the consumption of larvae, it increases with the variables marital status, sex of the head of household, and knowledge of nutritional intake. And it decreases with the variables level of education of the head of household, religion, and main source of information.

The results of the Probit regression show in Table 4 below attest that the consumption of locusts increases with the variables marital status, gender of the household head, number of years lived in the city, and having a social media account. It decreases with the variables religion, household occupation status, and the tribe of the household head. However, the consumption of crickets increases with the variables marital status and knowledge of nutritional benefits. It decreases with the variable religion.

Table 4. Probit model results and marginal effects (continued).

Legend: ***significant at 1%, **significant at 5%, *significant at 10%. Source: Results from Stata 15 software analyses.

Entomophagy is a current topic worldwide, with several studies conducted in various contexts. Despite the lack of research in the DRC, particularly in the Greater Kasai area, most studies in the African context have shown that the majority of respondents are entomophagous ([21]; [19]; [13]; [15]; [14]). These studies primarily highlight dietary habits, knowledge of nutritional values, and taste as the main motivations for households to consume insects. The findings of this study align with those of previous researchers, as it shows that the majority of surveyed households (94%) in Kananga are entomophagous, and the main motivations for this consumption are the same as those mentioned by these researchers.

Unlike the study conducted by [14], which cites dietary habits as the primary reason for non-consumption of insects, this study identifies religious prohibitions as the main reason for non-consumption of insects. This reason was also found by [21], who notes that a portion of his respondents primarily cite religious, customary, or other ethnic prohibitions that exclude the consumption of insects.

It is also noted that households from certain tribes surveyed in Kananga do not consume locusts, and the reason is nothing other than ethnic prohibitions, as confirmed by the last researcher mentioned above.

Regarding factors limiting insect consumption, market unavailability or seasonality, and high purchase prices (especially insects like weevil larvae and caterpillars) are mentioned. These results were also found by [14]; [15]; and [13]. Unlike the latter, the consumption of insects such as weevil larvae is limited due to various doubts about their source, as there are numerous rumors circulating regarding the origin of these larvae. Some believe that they are toilet maggots that are transformed using a well-established technique by vendors. This situation mainly highlights the impact of perception on the consumption of weevil larvae and underscores the need to act accordingly to improve food safety and promote sustainable eating practices.

Among the most consumed insects, the results of this study show that caterpillars and winged termites are the most consumed. The study conducted by [11] found the same results, showing that in Kinshasa, the capital of the DRC, caterpillars are the most consumed insects. This was also found by [21].

The factors determining insect consumption in Kananga are generally: the marital status of the household head, the religion of the household head, the income of the household head, but especially the knowledge of the household head about the nutritional benefits of insects. In his study, [21] also found that insects are consumed equally by men and women, and that the age and education level of the household head have no influence on insect consumption. The results found by [13] also show that insect consumption is independently related to gender, education level, or social status of the subjects.

In contrast, this study shows that marital status, gender of the household head, and income of the household head influence the consumption of caterpillars. Households headed by widows or widowers are more likely to consume caterpillars, as are households headed by men.

Among the factors limiting insect consumption in Kananga, the majority of surveyed household heads mentioned the unavailability of these insects in the market, which has led most of them to go more than 5 years without consuming insects such as crickets, locusts, and especially weevil larvae. The latter, being more appreciated by households, see their consumption decrease day by day, caused not only by their unavailability but also by doubts about their source.

Based on the results found in this study, some recommendations can be made:

Mistrust of the origin of weevil larvae may limit their consumption, which could restrict food options, especially in regions where protein sources are limited. This highlights the need to assess how this perception affects not only household food security but also the sustainability of local food systems. Given its real impact on food security, it is crucial to raise awareness among the population so that they can consume this insect without hesitation. Conduct research on domestication or breeding techniques for insects such as: weevil larvae, crickets, locusts, etc., this can create jobs and reduce financial and food dependence, but also allow for the population to consume them throughout the year;Invest in equipment that can help conserve periodic insects such as winged termites, this will allow the population to consume them at any time;Promote and above all raise awareness among the population, especially young people, who are likely to be influenced by European culture, to preserve the culture of entomophagy left by our ancestors;Educate and above all raise awareness among the population who collect insects, in the use of techniques aimed at the sustainability of this sector.

This study aimed to assess the consumption of entomophagy among households in the City of Kananga, identifying the factors associated with this consumption and identifying the most consumed insect by households. After analysis, the results show that nearly 94% of the surveyed households consume insects, confirming the second hypothesis. As for the determining factors of insect consumption, the Probit regression estimation reveals the following:

For caterpillars: the following hypotheses were confirmed: marital status, gender, religion of the household head, as well as the income of the household head and the knowledge of the nutritional value of insects by the household head. Other hypotheses were rejected.

Regarding winged termites, the following hypotheses were confirmed: marital status, gender of the household head, religion of the household head, and the knowledge of the nutritional value of insects by the household head. Other hypotheses were rejected.

Concerning weevil larvae, the following hypotheses were confirmed: marital status, gender of the household head, education level of the household head, religion of the household head, main source of information, and the knowledge of the nutritional value of insects by the household head. Other hypotheses were rejected.

Furthermore, for locusts, the following hypotheses were confirmed: marital status, gender, religion of the household head, possession of a social media account, and the income of the household head. Other hypotheses were rejected.

However, for crickets, the following hypotheses were confirmed: marital status, religion of the household head, and the knowledge of the nutritional value of insects by the household head. Other hypotheses were rejected.

According to survey results in Kananga, the most commonly consumed insects are termites and crickets (93% each). The main reason for this high consumption, unlike other insects, is their availability on the market. This allows us to reject the third hypothesis.

Kananga, being one of the cities in the Democratic Republic of Congo with a high rate of malnutrition, studies on entomophagy should be valued, especially research on techniques for farming edible insects, as the collection and farming of insects can offer important strategies for diversifying livelihoods and provide a source of valuable nutritional benefits.