According to ( Shahrudin et al., 2010 ) Malaysia is one of the nations in Asia that has benefited from strong foreign funding inflow. ( Kumar et al., 2018 ), has supported this view as he stated there’s no denying the position that overseas investments have performed in economic growth, as it has been a large factor in Zambia’s growing financial system and Zambia will increasingly adopt a more centered approach in its measures to attract greater FDI. According to Thompson (2011) , FDI has been seen as a key driving force underlying the robust overall performance in Zambia, appeared as a leading position during the boom of many of the economies of the African area, especially in export sectors, and has been a critical source of overseas capital at some stage in crisis. According to the IMF (2011) , inflows of FDI into growing countries grew by a median of 23 according to cent 12 months in the course of 1990 to 2010. Kraay (2018) said that FDI is now the biggest and the maximum solid source of private capital for growing countries and additionally economies in transition, accounting for nearly 50 in keeping with cent of all capital flows.

The FDI flow is clearly inclined by the dimension of a country’s market demand as measured by the per capita of GDP. FDI tends to move towards expanding markets where purchasing power is high, since in such markets the firms have the potential to gain higher returns on their investments, hence greater profits. Therefore, it can be shown above that economic growth has been consistent in the last 10 years implying that the government and the policies in place have worked well if not all improved the economy ( Figure 3 ).

Zambia’s economy is a market economic system-orientated industrial USA and growing new and slightly open. Each country in Africa performs a very important role in producing economic improvement. According to Coady & Gupta (2012) , Malaysia’s economy became the 3rd biggest economy in South East Asia and the twenty-eighth largest economic system in the world via buying strength parity with gross domestic (GDP) for 2008 is $222 billion with an increase in the price of 5% to 7% in view that 2007 and in 2010, GDP in keeping with capita (PPP) of Malaysia stands at US$14, seven hundred. Then in 2009, the nominal GDP became US$383.6 billion and the nominal in line with the capita GDP became US$ eight, a hundred in 2007. In 2018, Malaysia’s actual GDP turned 382,129 million US bucks. Between 1969 and 2018, the actual GDP of Malaysia grew considerably from 19,530 million to 382,129 million US bucks rising at an increasing annual rate that reached a maximum of 11.70% in 1973 after which reduced to 4. Seventy-Four percent in 2018 The Malaysia’s economic system is pushed through many sectors which include manufacturing, agriculture and others. Exports also helped develop the national 8 system in areas together with electronics. Malaysia is moving ahead with the coverage of creating a robust know-how base inside the subject of era, research and development. The U.S. GDP is based totally on several main together with foreign direct investment (FDI), unemployment, export and import, inflation fee, and other elements. For instance, the predominant export by Malaysia in 2007 was electronic system, petroleum, and wood merchandise whilst the foremost imports turned into machinery, vehicles, iron and steel merchandise ( Wu, 2010 ).

The Zambia government is encouraging FDI ordinarily by way of in search of to consolidate its economic system ( Andronova et al., 2022 ). This is why, for instance, Zambia is seeking to liberalize the expatriate employment machine within the production sector so that you can sell transfer of era and to facilitate the arrival of certified employees in its territory. In order to consolidate strong domestic call for, the authorities have allowed families to gain from decrease earnings taxes and have additionally extensively extended the salaries of civil servants. Fiscal consolidation remains one of the precedence objectives of the government, which goals to gain a balanced price range in 2020, with the introduction of 3.3 million jobs over the identical length. To avoid the trap of ultimately being stuck in the institution of center-earnings countries, the authorities has put in location because 2010 a robust software of monetary transformation. The six principal objectives of this program are: 1) To consolidate internal intake as a driver of increase; 2) To expand the knowledge economic system; 3) To urbanize the United States; 4) To consolidate the public budget; 5) To move the flagship industries upmarket to build international centers of excellence; 6) To beef up the financial weight of SMEs. It is inside the framework of this financial improvement plan that Zambia has additionally included tax incentives to attract overseas funding in strategic sectors of pastime, consisting of “pioneering fame” for enterprise sectors, agriculture, and tourism, the “Bio nexus label” for the biotechnology zone and for the groups inside the ICT and multimedia sectors. Zambian financial system is already surprisingly well internationalized and is predicated on diversifying and growing exports.

The U.S.A. Has additionally managed to create a wholesale business surroundings, ranked on the twenty fourth position in phrases of ease of doing commercial enterprise (World Bank Doing to FDI by using imposing broadly liberal and obvious investment coverage).

Systematic statistics on FDI inflows by region, industry or us of a of beginning aren’t available. On the complete, FDI has been concentrated in the mining area, both in terms of shares and flows, because the mid-1990s. It is expected that the mining region attracted extra than 1/2 the FDI inflows in the course of this period, a time while many big overseas mining agencies entered the United States for the manufacturing and exploration of copper and other minerals along with cobalt. However, this must be positioned into context. These groups are exceptionally small whilst in comparison to zone leaders such BHP Billiton, which has a marketplace capitalization of $123 billion. The TNCs getting into Zambia included Avmin (Australia, with market capitalization $563 million), America Mineral (USA, $241 million), Metorex (South Africa, Investment Policy Review of Zambia ( Basu et al., 2013 ).

The $405 million, First Quantum (Canada, $3 billion) and, greater currently, Equinox Minerals (Australia, $593 million), J&W Investments (Switzerland), which received the closed Ramcoz mine, and Vedanta Resources (United Kingdom, $eight billion), which obtained Konkola Copper Mines.

Recent FDI to African countries has been boosted with the help of the acquisitions of current assets via foreign investors below the authorities’ privatization program that, as was noted ahead, began in 1992, to start with mercantilism smaller businesses, followed later by suggests that of the larger copper mining agencies. By Apr 2002, 257 kingdom institutions had been privatized from a complete of 284. Of the privatized agencies, sixty-five % had been oversubscribed to Zambian people, twenty-nine share to foreigners while half-dozen % had been tense. though solely twenty-nine % of privatized businesses had been non heritable with the help of FDI, in fee terms, foreign funding dominated the privatization programme, specially through joint ventures. The overall fee of privatization receipts amounted to spherical $450 million, consequently indicating the small length of the many homes. Foreign patrons are involved especially in the acquisition of a variety of larger mining, energy, producing, and agro-business organizations ( Table 2 ).

The communication is known that past writing found optimistic final results of inner FDI on money improvement. The analysis likewise determined that, at an overall degree, overseas direct investment will take care ought to optimistic outcomes on financial improvement. Be that because it may, at a two-dimensional figure level, the effects of foreign direct speculation on financial improvement vary across segments and no general influences area unit watched. Colen et al. (2018) crystal rectifier associate analysis to determine if outside direct speculation may be a driving force of monetary development and human development. This investigation became directed in a very meeting of making international locations.

Tang et al. (2012) surveyed the augmentation of FDI hypothesis to the host nation and empirical investigations of the influences of FDI. They perceive that outside direct hypothesis assumes associate undeniably widespread activity in worldwide money improvement, whereas increasing economic process furthermore gainsays existing FDI hypotheses. They utilize systematic fashions to audit on the far side examinations and empirical proof, significantly in Africa. They situated that the impact of foreign direct speculation on the economic development of the host state, primarily in growing international locations, is as however, associate with uncertain bother. Sghaier (2013) examines for joins among foreign direct investments, money-connected development and money improvement in four nations in North Africa: the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, Egypt, Morocco and the Republic of Tunisia. By breaking down one in all a form strides of monetary fund advancement, this examination utilizes a multi-directional at once regression model to research the association among given parts. they found that international locations with properly-created cash associated frameworks have a higher retention ability to take advantage of foreign direct funding. Kinaro (2006) inspected the determinants of ADI in African countries. In his read, outside direct speculation not only offers just about necessary investment to African countries for foreign investment, but additionally creates work openings and encourages the exchange of the government’s aptitudes and innovation, all of which contribute altogether to economic advancement. He in addition declared that the liberal political form had gotten every day and step by step misplaced the potential to tug in foreign direct speculation. By breaking down the degree of overseas direct hobby recently, his investigation situated that outside direct interest within the country continues to decline. Nyamwange from the University of the capital of Dortort (2018) processed in his work the RePEc faculty get in the metropolis that doors direct speculation has been decreasing as of delinquent contrasted with neighboring international locations. within the wake of directive communicating in Malaya, he applied elucidating analysis and discovered that inflows rose forcefully to $ eighty-two million out in 2003, contrasted with $ twenty-eight million in 2002, withal the very fact that it became one in all the utmost distended. The economy in African countries is that of the South African district. As indicated through the study, the essential wellsprings of foreign direct interest in African countries, are South Africa, Egypt, Nigeria, and Botswana.

Ordinary least-squares (OLS) regression is a generalized linear modeling technique that may be used to model a single response variable that has been recorded on at least an interval scale. The technique may be applied to single or multiple explanatory variables and also categorical explanatory variables that have been appropriately coded. The Ordinary Least Square (OLS) model was adopted because of the mixtures of I (0) and I (1) variables and the methodology of OLS was preferred in this study since it is simple to run, easy to understand, and interpret. This model does not violate any of the assumptions of the classical linear regression model ( Figure 4 ). Therefore, it was necessary to confirm the relationship between the dependable variable (economic growth ) and inflation rate.

Below is the Mathematical form of the model:

$\text{GDP}=\text{F}\left(\text{FDI},\text{INFLR},\text{INTR},\text{EXCHR}\right)$

where GDP = Gross Domestic Product

FDI = Foreign Direct Investment

NFLR = Inflation Rate

INTR = Interest Rate

EXCH = Exchange Rate

Based on the above formulation the formula can be re-written as

$\text{GDP}={\text{β}}_0+{\text{β}}_1\text{FDI}+{\text{β}}_2\text{INFLR}+{\text{β}}_3\text{INTR}+{\text{β}}_4\text{EXCHR}+{\text{ε}}_{\text{t}}$

where

β₀ = the intercept at time t

Coefficients of FDI

GDP = Gross Domestic Product

β₁FDI = Foreign Direct Investment

β₂INFLR = Inflation Rate

β₃INTR = Interest Rate

4EXCHR = Exchange Rate

The study utilized optional information, including auxiliary information, the factual materials that will be acquired from institutional records or distributed materials. The significant sources of information were gathered from the World Bank and the World Development Indicators. The investigation utilized yearly time series information for an example of 32 years (1988-2018).3.4 Pre-Estimation Tests.

Stationary time arrangement information is one whose attributes, for example, mean, fluctuation, and covariance don’t change after some time. This is significant because econometric examination of nonstationary factors prompts bogus relapse results ( Gujarati, 2004 ). The examination utilized the ADF test to test for stationarity.

Subsequent to building up that factors are nonstationary, it is critical to decide if there is any long-haul connection between the needy and autonomous factors. The examination utilized the cointegration test to test if the involved acquaintance between autonomous factors and ward.

The typicality suspicion involves that as the quantity of informational collections keep on expanding, they start to move toward the ordinary circulation. Wooldridge (2001) states that the ordinariness supposition NID (0, σ^2) is required so as to lead single or joint theory test about the model parameters. The Jarque-Bera test was utilized to test for ordinariness.

The Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM Test was utilized to test for autocorrelation. No autocorrelation is a suspicion of the traditional straight relapse model indicating that the residuals are free of one another.

The Breusch-Godfrey-Pagan Test was utilized to test for heteroscedasticity. Heteroscedasticity is another infringement of the suppositions of the old-style direct relapse model. It involves that the fluctuation of the mistake terms contingent on the informative factors is not steady. The change of the blunder term must be homoscedastic or have equivalent fluctuation.

Ordinary least-squares (OLS) regression is a generalized linear modelling technique that is used to model one response variable that has been recorded on a minimum of associate degree interval scale. The technique could be applied to single or multiple explanatory variables and also categorical explanatory variables that are suitably coded. the normal Least sq. (OLS) model was adopted attributable to the mixtures of I (0) and I (1) variables, and also the methodology of OLS was most popular during this study since it’s straightforward to run, straightforward to know, and interpret. This model doesn’t violate any assumption of the classical statistical regression model. During this case, it was best to use this model for this study. Thus, it was necessary to substantiate the link between dependent variables (economic growth) and the independent variables (exchange rate, foreign direct investment, rate of inflation, and real interest rate).

1) The real Interest rate

The real interest rate is the rate of interest an investor expects to receive after allowing for inflation. It reflects the true cost of borrowing and the true yield on savings when inflation is taken into account.

The formula to calculate the real interest rate is:

Real Interest Rate = Nominal Interest Rate − Inflation Rate

where:

1) Nominal Interest Rate is the stated interest rate without adjusting for inflation.

2) Inflation Rate is the percentage increase in the price level of goods and services over a period.

The real interest rate primarily reflects lending rates since it indicates what borrowers effectively pay after considering inflation. However, it can also apply to other rates, such as the yield on bonds or savings accounts, as it shows the real return on investments or savings after inflation.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) can be measured in two ways:

1) Nominal GDP: This measures the value of all finished goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a specific time period using current prices, without adjusting for inflation.

2) Real GDP: This adjusts nominal GDP for inflation, reflecting the true value of goods and services produced by accounting for changes in price levels over time. Real GDP provides a more accurate representation of an economy’s size and how it’s growing.

Mathematical articulation and also the economics model

Below is the Mathematical style of the model:

GDP = F(FDI, INFLR, INTR, EXCHR)

where GDP = Gross Domestic Product

FDI = Foreign Direct Investment

INFLR = Inflation Rate

INTR = Interest Rate

EXCH = Exchange Rate

Based on the higher than formulation the formula will be re-written as

GDP = β₀ + β₁FDI + β₂INFLR + β₃INTR + β₄EXCHR + ε_t

where

β₀ = the intercept at time t

GDP = Gross Domestic Product

β₁FDI = Foreign Direct Investment

β₂INFLR = Inflation Rate

β₃INTR = Interest Rate

β₄EXCHR = Exchange Rate

The examination used non-mandatory data; by auxiliary data, I mean the factual materials that can be non-heritable from institutional records or distributed materials. The many wellsprings of knowledge were gathered from the Planet Bank and World Development Indicators. The investigation used yearly time arrangement data for an associate degree example of thirty-two years (1988-2018).

1) Stationary

Stationary time arrangement data is one whose attributes, for instance, mean, fluctuation and variance do not modification once a while. this is often important because economics examination of nonstationary factors prompts phoney relapse results ( Gujarati, 2004 ). The examination used the ADF take a look at to check for stationarity.

2) The Cointegration

Subsequent to increase that factors square measure nonstationary, it’s essential to come to a decision if there’s any long-haul affiliation between the necessitous and autonomous factors. The examination used the cointegration take a look at to check if the concerned association between autonomous factors and ward.

1) Test for Normality

The normality suspicion involves that because the amount of information collected carry to increases, they begin to move toward the normal circulation. Wooldridge (2001) states that the quality supposition NID (0, σ^2) is needed therefore on lead single or joint theory take a look at concerning the model parameters. The Jarque-Bera take a look at was used to check for quality.

2) Test for Serial Correlation

The Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation luminous flux unit take a look at was used to check for autocorrelation. No autocorrelation may be a suspicion of the standard straight regression model indicating that the residuals square measure freed of each other.

3) Take a look at Heteroscedasticity

The Breusch-Godfrey-Pagan takes a look at was used to check for heteroscedasticity. Heteroscedasticity is another infringement of the suppositions of the old-style font direct relapse model. It involves that the fluctuation of the error terms contingent the informative factors aren’t steady. The modification of the blunder term should be homoscedastic or have equivalent fluctuation.

The Augmented Dickey Fuller Test was undertaken to test for stationarity in the series. The Unit Root Test is shown in Table 3 below.

From the table, it may be indicated that GDP, swelling rate, and loan cost were stationary at a level; this is on the grounds that the related p-value was not exactly the 5% levels of significance, while the remote direct speculation and swapping scale were not stationary at a level. Along these lines, one approach to manage stochastic patterns or unit roots is by taking the principal contrast of the factors; consequently, the first differencing of the considerable number of factors, remote direct estimation, and conversion scale were obtained, and the factors were stationary from the start. From the table over, the outcomes acquired show that after the unit root test on the gross local, outside direct venture, expansion rate, interest rate, and exchange rate. At the level and first contrast, we dismiss the invalid theory of the unit pull or nonstationary for the factors above. This is on the grounds that the related p-values are low at all degrees of significance. Further patterns in the factors investigation are in the informative supplement.

Trace test indicates 1 cointegrating (s) at the 0.05 level. *denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level. ** MacKinnon et al. (1999) . p-values.

Max-eigenvalue test indicates 1 cointegrating (s) at the 0.05 level. * denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level. ** MacKinnon et al. (1999) . p-values.

The Johansen Co-integration check was conducted. Table 4 and Table 5 show the Trace data point and therefore the Max-Eigen data point severally. each indicated that there’s one co-integrating equation at five-hitter level of significance. The results of the Johansen Co-integration tests powerfully rejected the null hypothesis of no co-integration. This entails that there’s a long association between the freelance variables and therefore the dependent variables.

As the population grows inside the house areas, there’s additional demand for valuable products and services. This translates to a large chance for multinationals to come back in and take a look at to fill the gap in the market by providing the essential product as a service. The results conjointly reveal that the rate is statistically insignificant in explaining variation in the economic process, and the modification in the rate results in roughly zero. 435% increase in gross domestic product. This signifies that the rate influences economic processes in an African nation, although it’s statistically insignificant. The results conjointly showed that a rise in the rate of inflation causes a decrease in economic growth of roughly by −0.003%. this suggests that the economic process in African nations is incredibly tuned in to inflation. Its unimportance implies that it’s a determinant associated with different variables to see the stability of a setting. Inflation will cause uncertainty regarding the long-run profit of investment comes whether or not from inside or foreign investors, resulting in additional conservative investment methods. this implies that there would be lower levels of investment, therefore a slowed-down economic process. The results conjointly indicate that a rise in real rate of interest causes a rise in economic growth by roughly half-dozen. 3%. This price shows that the economic process is incredibly tuned in to changes in real interest rates; that is, if the rate of interest changes, the economic process changes quite proportionately. The R-squared was higher, which showed that a minimum of sixty-two 04% of the variations within the variable were attributed to variations within the independent variables. All the changes within the variable over the ascertained years within the Asian country economy are explained by the explanatory variables, the remaining thirty-seven.96% variation is explained by different variables outside the model ( Table 6 ).

The Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM test was utilized for autocorrelation. The invalid theory is that there is no autocorrelation. No autocorrelation implies that there is no connection between the error terms. The outcomes are exhibited in Table 7 below.

With an F-measurement of 14.48715 and a p-estimation of 0.3987, which is over 5% level of centrality, the invalid speculation was acknowledged, and we presumed that there was no sequential relationship in the error terms.

The proximity of heteroscedasticity recommends that the change isn’t consistent. The invalid hypothesis is that there is the presence of Homoscedasticity. The Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey test was used to test for heteroscedasticity, and the results are shown in the table underneath.

Results show ( Table 8 ) that the probability Chi-Square is 0.2124, and it is greater than the 5% level of significance. We therefore accept the null hypothesis of homoscedasticity and conclude that there is no heteroscedasticity.

1) Null hypothesis (H0)(H0) (H0): The error terms have constant variance (homoscedasticity).

H0: Var(εi) = σ2for all iH_0: operatorname {Var}(varepsilon_i) = sigma^2 quad text {for all} iH0: Var(εi) = σ2for all i

2) Alternative hypothesis (H1) (H1) (H1): The error terms do not have constant variance (heteroscedasticity).

H1: Var(εi) ≠ σ2H_1: operatorname {Var}(varepsilon_i) eq sigma^2H1: Var(εi) = σ2

The Jarque-Bera test of normality was done in order to determine whether the error terms were normally distributed. Figure 5 below shows the Normality Test of Std. Dev pick.

This examination included the utilization of the CUSUM on the residuals of the model to check for parameter dependability. The figure beneath shows a yield for the CUSUM of squares which was utilized to decide the parameter instability of the condition utilized in the investigation. From the figure we can see that the tests exist in the 5% importance level significance the parameter of the condition is sufficiently steady to gauge the short-run and since quite a while ago run causality of the investigation.

As can be seen from the graph ( Figure 6 ) above, the cumulative sum is between the two red lines (critical lines). This, therefore, implies that the parameters in terms of the intercept are stable.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows often correlate with Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth, though the strength and nature of this relationship can vary significantly over time ( Figure 7 ). Understanding these dynamics is crucial for policymakers and investors who aim to navigate the complexities of global investment landscapes.

Historically, certain economic booms have been characterized by substantial FDI inflows alongside robust GDP growth. Notably, during the globalization wave of the late 1990s and early 2000s, many countries experienced a surge in FDI. Key factors contributing to this trend included:

1) Favorable Economic Policies: Governments adopted liberal trade policies that encouraged foreign investments.

2) Improved Infrastructure: Enhanced transportation and communication networks made countries more attractive to investors.

3) Market Liberalization: The reduction of barriers to entry for foreign investors facilitated increased capital flows.

Conversely, during periods of economic downturn, such as the 2008 financial crisis, many nations observed a decline in FDI inflows, despite ongoing domestic investments. In uncertain economic climates, investors often become risk-averse, resulting in a pullback of capital. This phenomenon illustrates how external economic conditions can significantly influence investment behavior.

Several factors play a critical role in shaping FDI trends:

1) Policy Changes: Liberalization of trade policies and the introduction of investment incentives can attract FDI, while protectionist measures tend to deter it.

2) Economic Stability: Countries with stable macroeconomic environments generally attract more FDI, as investors seek secure environments for their capital.

Global Events: Crises or geopolitical tensions can disrupt FDI flows, even in otherwise growing economies, highlighting the interconnected nature of global markets.

While the mining sector often dominates FDI inflows, other sectors such as agriculture and manufacturing exhibit notable trends.

1) Agriculture

FDI in agriculture has shown fluctuations, often influenced by food security concerns and sustainability initiatives. For example, periods of drought or famine can lead to increased interest in agricultural investments as nations seek to bolster their food production capabilities.

2) Manufacturing

FDI in manufacturing tends to remain stable during economic growth phases. The rise of emerging markets in Asia during the 2000s attracted significant manufacturing FDI, driven by lower labor costs and favorable trade agreements. This sector’s resilience during growth periods underscores its importance in the global investment landscape.

A sectoral breakdown of FDI can reveal shifts in investor confidence and priorities. For instance, if mining FDI declines due to falling commodity prices, sectors like technology or renewable energy may experience increased investments. This adaptability highlights the dynamic nature of global investment patterns and the importance of responding to changing economic conditions.

After the collapse of the Iron Curtain in the early 1990s, worldwide foreign direct investment (FDI) saw a decade of gradual yet consistent growth ( Figure 8 ). The 1990s marked a period of increasing globalization and the outsourcing of activities by Western multinational corporations, with FDI in developing nations that offered low labor costs (such as China) being particularly significant. Developed nations mainly controlled global FDI flows, whereas outflows from developing countries were minimal; however, due to outsourcing, their inflows became considerably more significant. After hitting a preliminary peak in 2000, both FDI outflows and inflows experienced a decline due to the collapse of the dotcom bubble in the early 2000s. In the subsequent years, these figures rebounded and reached record levels in 2007, just before the onset of the Global Financial Crisis. Beginning in 2003, developing countries, particularly China, began to take on a more significant role as outward investors, as their companies sought opportunities in global markets by advancing their own internationalization efforts.

Following the Global Financial Crisis of 2008/2009 and the subsequent Euro crisis in 2010, foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows and outflows in developed nations fluctuated more than they had in the previous two decades ( Figure 9 ). In contrast, FDI from developing nations continued to rise. The disparity between inflows into developing countries and those into Emerging economies have been increasing their presence in foreign direct investment (FDI) outflows: In 2009, these outflows made up only 20 percent of the global total, but by 2018, their share exceeded 40 percent, nearing the levels from developed nations in that same year. It’s important to note, however, that the significant influence of “the China factor” has driven FDI outflows from developing countries: Over 30 percent of these outflows originated from China in 2018 World Bank Report (2018) . This percentage was even greater in the preceding years, while China’s portion of global FDI inflows has remained steady at around 20 percent for several consecutive years.

The influence of the “Trump factor” on FDI in developed nations seems to mirror the impact of the “China factor” on FDI from developing countries, though in a contrary manner: Since Donald Trump’s presidency began in 2016, both outflows and inflows of foreign direct investment in developed countries have decreased by half. This trend is largely attributed to the United States acting as the primary home and host country for global FDI: In 2018, US FDI outflows were negative, indicating disinvestment, while inflows plummeted by 55 percent compared to 2016.