Gastrointestinal parasitism poses major challenges to small ruminant production, especially in tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate regions worldwide, often resulting in substantial stock losses and economic hardship [1] [2] . Chemical anthelmintics, the current standard for parasite control, have led to widespread anthelmintic resistance due to overuse, and drug residues in food products pose additional public health concerns [3] - [5] . As such, research into alternative management options for helminth control is necessary.

Previous in-vitro studies from our laboratory (unpublished) have demonstrated potent inhibitory effects of Panax notoginseng (P. notoginseng) and other medicinal plants on helminth egg hatching and larval motility [6] . However, the in-vivo effects—particularly on host microbiome and related parasite resistance—remain unclear. The gut microbiome plays a critical role in host immunity and resistance to parasite infection [7] .

We report the effects of supplementation with Syzogium aromaticum, P. notoginseng (NOTOGINSENG), and Piper nigrum on the goat gut microbiome, aiming to identify microbial signatures associated with anti-parasitic benefits and to assess the potential for these botanicals in GIN parasite management programs.

P.notoginseng supplementation resulted in significant changes to the microbiota not observed in goats treated with S. aromaticum or P.nigrum. Increased abundance of Helicobacter sp. MIT 01-6242 (an organism linked to ulceration in sea otters and known for antibiotic sensitivity) was recorded [14] . Fischerella sp NIES-4106 is a strain of cyanobactera that is not responsible for parasitic activity, but may be upregulated as a response to parasitic infection causing a range of symptoms caused by parasites [15] . Like Fischerella sp NIES-4106, Frischella perrara, is notably elevated in treated goats, it is known to be a dominant immunomodulator in honeybees, and may be involved in igniting the inflammation caused by GIN [16] [17] . Spiroplasma apis is another revealed microorganism that appears to be upregulated when a host is infected by a parasite such as H. contortus . The substantial modulation of microbial communities, points to P. notoginseng as a promising candidate for further study as a means of microbiome-mediated GIN control. The observed microbial communities are potentially conducive to anti-parasitic effects, possibly enhancing host immunity or antagonizing parasite establishment.

P. notoginseng supplementation produced the most notable impact on goat gut microbiota among the botanicals studied. Several upregulated taxa have known or hypothetical roles in immunological and gastrointestinal health. These results suggest a microbiome-medited mechanism for parasite resistance and support the potential of P. notoginseng in sustainable parasite control programs for ruminants.

Conceptualization, Z.W. and A. S.; methodology, Z.W., A. S., and Y. T.; software, Z.W., A.S., and Y.T.; validation, Z.W., A. S., and Y. T.; formal analysis, Z.W., A. S., and Y. T.; investigation, Z.W., A. S., and Y. T.; resources, Z.W.; data curation, Y.T.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.W., A. S., and Y. T.; writing—review and editing, Z.W., A. S., and Y. T.; visualization, Z.W., A. S., and Y. T.; supervision, Z. W.; project administration, Z. W.; funding acquisition, Z. W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This work was supported partially by Capacity Building Program, Grant no. 2017-38821-26429/project accession no. 1012072 from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture (ZW).

The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of faculty, staff, and students in the Sherman Lewis School of Agriculture and Applied Sciences at Langston University, Langston, OK.