The strategic position of Palestine (27,000 km²) at the meeting point of Asia, Africa and Europe encourages the diversity of vertebrate fauna of Afrotropical, Oriental and Palaearctic origins [1] . Terrestrial vertebrates are abundant in Palestine, with 551 bird species, 130 mammal species, 97 reptile species, and eight amphibian species recorded [2] . Numerous studies conducted on the terrestrial vertebrate fauna of the Gaza Strip have shown the presence of dozens of species of mammals and reptiles and hundreds of species of birds, totaling 250 species, in addition to only three species of amphibians (order Anura) [3] - [10] . Palestine’s waters are home to a diverse array of fish species, numbering more than 400, including both native and invasive species, in both freshwater and marine environments, as evidenced by numerous studies [11] - [14] . A few years ago, Abu Amra [15] recorded 128 species of bony fish (Osteichthyes) in the marine ecosystem of the Gaza Strip, Regarding the cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes) in the marine ecosystem of the Gaza Strip, it is believed that there may be more than 30 species of sharks and rays, although no specialized studies have been conducted on them yet (Personal Observations). In their inventory of some relatively large marine organisms, Abd Rabou et al. [16] described 10 species of large cartilaginous fishes in the Mediterranean waters of the Gaza Strip. In the entire Mediterranean waters of Palestine, Golani [17] reported the presence of 57 species of cartilaginous fishes (31 sharks, 25 skates and rays, and only one species of Chimaera).

A natural history museum is a scientific institution that houses natural history collections that include current and historical records of animals, plants, fungi, ecosystems, geology, paleontology, climatology, and more. Natural history museums provide scientists and the public with a better and clearer understanding of the biodiversity and value of the natural world around them [18] - [22] . According to Qumsiyeh et al. , the biggest goals of biological museums are to change human attitudes toward the environment and to encourage biodiversity preservation. In most Palestinian universities, biological museums, regardless of their size or the extent of their collections, are considered an integral part of biological sciences departments. Biological museums at Palestinian universities typically thrive thanks to donations from various members of the Palestinian community, including scientists, students, fishermen, and ordinary citizens. University students, laboratory technicians, and/or teaching assistants often perform taxidermy and conservation works [24] [25] . Local university museums can provide educational services to school students by introducing them to biodiversity issues .

The small Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University of Gaza, which was established in 1980, is home to a variety of biological collections. In late December 2008, the museum was subjected to an Israeli airstrike, destroying it and its collection of mummified animals [24] . Following the end of the first Israeli war on the Gaza Strip (2008/2009), the Biology Department at the Islamic University began to recover and began restoring new collections of mummified animals, with the hope of establishing a new museum that would serve the scientific community, researchers, students, and visitors [25] . Years before the Israeli war that followed October 7, 2023, the museum became even more magnificent and beautiful than its predecessor. Fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are almost well represented among the specimens preserved or stuffed at the Biology Department Museum of the Islamic University of Gaza. The majority of vertebrate specimens were preserved in formalin according to wet taxidermy standards, while other specimens were stuffed according to dry taxidermy principles. Most of the preserved specimens have been classified according to the scientific keys of classification, with each specimen having a label attached to it showing the Arabic, English and scientific (Latin) names. This museum has been a frequent destination for researchers, university and school students, foreign visitors, and members of the public to learn about its modest collections of animals (and plants) and increase their ecological awareness of Palestinian biodiversity ( Figure 1 ).

During its war on the Gaza Strip, October 7, 2023, Israel destroyed numerous buildings, structures, homes, and recreational facilities, including zoos housing predatory and ornamental animals, as well as the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University of Gaza, which housed numerous stuffed animals, particularly vertebrates (cartilaginous and bony fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals). Therefore, this study aims to document the mummified marine and terrestrial vertebrates preserved in the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University of Gaza before its complete destruction at the beginning of the Israeli war on the Gaza Strip on October 7, 2023.

The current study examines the Palestinian marine and terrestrial vertebrate fauna (cartilaginous fish, bony fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) preserved in the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University of Gaza before it was bombed at the beginning of the Israeli war that erupted after October 7, 2023. The results revealed a remarkable diversity of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial vertebrate species, reflecting the vertebrate fauna inhabiting the various ecosystems in the Gaza Strip. A total of 156 species belonging to 92 families and 43 orders was recorded ( Table 1 ). Bony fishes (Osteichthyes) accounted for 33.6% of the total recorded species, followed by birds (Aves) (30.1%), reptiles (Reptilia) (15.4%), cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes) (5.1%), mammals (Mammalia) (3.9%), and amphibians (Amphibia) (1.9%), as shown in Table 1 and Figure 7 . The details of each vertebrate class are described as follows:

Palestine (27,000 km²) boasts a rich biodiversity of vertebrate fauna representing the classes of Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia. This diversity is supported by the geographical location of Palestine, as well as by the diversity of climates, terrain, habitats, and ecosystems [1] . This vertebrate biodiversity currently faces numerous threats, including urban expansion, desertification, pollution, habitat alteration and destruction, weak environmental legislation and laws, the Israeli apartheid walls separating the Palestinian territories from the lands occupied by Israel in 1948, and repeated Israeli invasions and wars in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip [43] - [46] . This situation of vertebrate fauna in Palestine is reflected in the diversity of vertebrate fauna in the Gaza Strip, which has been under an 18-year Israeli occupation blockade. It is therefore not surprising that the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University of Gaza, which was destroyed by the Israeli war machine, contains a total of 156 species of mummified vertebrates, as the results of the current study reveal.

This is not the first time that museums or zoos in the Gaza Strip, which house various preserved or live vertebrates, have suffered damage during periods of wars. In 2004, the Rafah Zoo was struck, resulting in the death or displacement of many animals [3] [47] . During the 2008/2009 war, the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University of Gaza was completely destroyed [24] . In the same period, the Gaza Zoo in Gaza City was also affected, leading to the death of many animals. Some predatory animals and monkeys escaped from their enclosures, creating a potential public health concern. More recently, during the ongoing war, the Namaa Zoo in northern Gaza sustained significant damage, resulting in the death of most of its animals, while others either escaped or were left without care due to restricted staff access (Personal Observations and Communications).

The current study revealed the presence of only eight species of cartilaginous fish preserved in the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University of Gaza. This number included small specimens, due to the Biology Department’s limited resources in terms of space, taxidermy equipment, and preservation fluids, and its inability to mummify larger specimens, which may reach meters in length. In fact, cartilaginous fish are huge predators, with some reaching lengths of one, two, or three meters, and sometimes more. Abd Rabou et al. described ten species of these fishes, including various sharks and rays. Some of these sharks have been recorded in rare attacks to humans along the Palestinian coast, resulting in injuries and deaths [48] . In particular, the Common Guitarfish (Rhinobatos rhinobatos), is the most popular stuffed cartilaginous fish in the Biology Department Museum. This is due to several reasons, including the widespread fishing and consumption of various sizes (especially small ones) from the marine environment of the Gaza Strip, its low price, which enables the poor to purchase it, and its use as a model in practical lessons on the anatomy of cartilaginous fishes in biology departments at Palestinian universities in the Gaza Strip [24] . The presence of eight species of cartilaginous fish preserved in the Biology Department Museum, compared to 68 species of bony fish, may not seem surprising. In a similar study, conducted on the fishes of the Alexandria region, southeastern Mediterranean, Egypt, Farag et al. [49] found that cartilaginous fish were represented by five species (5.3%), while bony fish were represented by 89 species (94.7%).

Mummified bony fishes constituted the largest proportion of preserved specimens, accounting for approximately one-third (33.6%). This is due to several reasons, including the ease of obtaining samples of marine bony fish, even farmed ones, the ease of embalming and preserving them in glass containers, their low prices, and the ease of purchasing them from fish markets. Most importantly, one master’s female student identified 128 fish species in the marine ecosystem of the Gaza Strip [15] . The researcher mummified many of these specimens, making the number of preserved bony fishes the largest among vertebrate samples in the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University of Gaza ( Figure 18 ). In this context and on a global scale, the class of Osteichthyes (bony fishes) is the largest class among all vertebrates, comprising more than 23,000 species belonging to about 435 families and 45 orders [50] .

The Sparidae family was the biggest among the bony fish families representing the preserved bony fishes at the Biology Department Museum. Such results coincided with the studies of Abu Amra [15] , Al-Hassan and El-Silini [51] , Saad [52] and Haroun et al. [53] who pointed out that the Sparidae was the biggest among the fishes surveyed at the Mediterranean coasts of the Gaza Strip of Palestine, Libya, Syria, and Egypt respectively. The Gilthead Sea Bream (Sparus aurata), which belongs to the Sparidae family, is well represented in the collections of mummified bony fishes in the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University of Gaza. The sources of stuffed Gilthead Sea Breams are fish caught in the Mediterranean Sea or raised in closed or open aquaculture systems in the Gaza Strip [54] . One of the good observations about the Gilthead Sea Bream is that its culture is remarkably adapted to brackish and marine pond conditions [56] prevailing in the Gaza Strip, as pointed out by Shaheen . Gilthead Sea Bream farming began years ago as part of a pilot project in cages off the coast of the Gaza Strip, and this type of mariculture may prove successful in the future [57] . In fact, over the years, the Gilthead Sea Bream has become a prominent species in Mediterranean aquaculture, with an estimated increase in its production volume [58] [59] .

The current results showed that 27 species of bony fishes (39.7%) were described as invasive (exotic or alien). Most of these fish reached the Mediterranean Sea from the Indo-Pacific and the Red Sea via the Suez Canal in Egypt. This invasion is scientifically known as the “Lessepsian migration”. Of course, some arrived from the Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Gibraltar [60] - [65] . Such invasive species form a considerable deal of the Mediterranean fisheries [66] [67] . Some invasive bony fishes have been recorded in the marine ecosystem of the Gaza Strip, Palestine and were proven in the current study to be toxic and cause injury and death. The invasive Red Lionfish (Pterois volitans) is also known among the Gazans to pose a public health risk due to their venomous spines, which can cause painful stings and sometimes serious injuries if not handled properly . The potential threats posed by this species to human health have been addressed in some countries around the world [68] - [70] . Although not included in this study, Abd Rabou et al. [71] highlighted the risks of the invasive and rare Reef Stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) to the public health of swimmers and divers in the Gaza Strip.

One of the most dangerous and poisonous exotic bony fish species preserved at the Biology Department Museum was the Silver-cheeked Toadfish (Lagocephalus sceleratus). This species is considered as one of the most recent invaders into the Mediterranean Sea [72] - [75] . It represents a serious ecological risk to Mediterranean biodiversity and fisheries resources and a health risk to public health. Abd Rabou [76] and Ulman et al. [77] reported several cases of poisoning and death due to these dangerous bony fish in some Mediterranean countries, including Palestine. Amid the ongoing war in the Gaza Strip, some Palestinians resorted to consuming available local fish species, including the Silver-cheeked Toadfish, which unfortunately led to several cases of poisoning, resulting in injuries and fatalities (Personal Communications). In fact, the tetrodotoxin (TTX) intoxication of the Silver-cheeked Toadfish has been disastrous in several Mediterranean countries, as some studies have indicated [78] - [80] . The danger posed by the Silver-cheeked Toadfish has prompted some governmental and academic bodies in the Gaza Strip to highlight its health and ecological risks, both in the media and during meetings with segments of Palestinian society at educational institutions ( Figure 19 ).

It is known that the Gaza Strip is home to only three species of amphibians belonging to the order Anura [7] [9] [82] , which are the same as those shown in Table 4 of this study. In the West Bank of Palestine, four species of frogs and toads were recorded; the three recorded in the current study in the Biology Department Museum, in addition to another species, which is, the Eastern or Syrian Spadefoot (Pelobates syriacus) as pointed out by Salman et al. [83] . There are no other orders of amphibians in the Gaza Strip, although the upper regions of Palestine are home to about eight species of amphibians, from the orders Anura (tailless amphibians) and Caudata (Urodela), as some studies have indicated [2] [84] . This comes as a reflection of rainfall level in the country. The Banded Newt (Triturus vittatus), for example, is not found in the Gaza Strip because aridity and semi-aridity as the Gaza Strip receives rainfall levels ranging from 250 in the south to 400 mm in the north per year, but it is found in northern Palestine because rainfall levels exceed the 500 mm per year threshold [35] . The ease of capturing frogs and toads in their aquatic or semi-aquatic habitats in the Gaza Strip has contributed to their taxidermy in the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University of Gaza. Amphibians, as sensitive creatures, face many threats in the Gaza Strip, Palestine, and even in some neighboring countries such as habitat change, modification, and destruction, excessive use of chemical pesticides, discharge of raw sewage into valleys, pollution of waterways and ponds, and the ongoing global climate change catastrophe - [87] .

The arid and semi-arid nature of the Gaza Strip attracts a large number of different reptile species, including turtles, lizards, and snakes. The reptile species preserved in the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University represent a significant portion of these Mediterranean reptiles found in Palestine and neighboring countries such as Jordan and Egypt [88] - [94] . Greece or Spur-toughed Tortoises (Testudo graeca) of various sizes were the most common turtle species preserved in the Biology Department Museum, as well as in other Palestinian university museums. This is due, of course, to their remarkable prevalence in the wild despite the threats they face, and to their ease of handling. Moreover, some Gazans as well as some Jordanians keep these turtles in their homes or in pet shops for trade [95] [96] , and occasional breeding and hatching have been recorded (Personal Observations). Their habit of feeding on plants in the wild [97] encourages their keeping in local homes and gardens, as they do not cost much to eat and can eat plant scraps.

The Caspian Turtle or the Striped-neck Terrapin (Mauremys caspica) is the only freshwater turtle found in the Wadi Gaza wetland ecosystem and can also be easily caught by hands or nets in its habitat. Although three species of sea turtles were recorded in the marine ecosystem of the Gaza Strip [16] [98] - [101] , only a relatively small specimen of the Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas) was found among the taxidermy specimens in the Biology Department Museum. Sea turtles that frequently strand on beaches of the Gaza Strip are often in varying states of decomposition and can be difficult to use for taxidermy. Due to their heavy weight, transporting them to the Islamic University of Gaza can be challenging, especially since most taxidermied vertebrate specimens are small and are donated by students or others to the Islamic University’s Biology Department. In fact, the Biology Department Museum’s capabilities in the field of taxidermy are very modest, and most of the taxidermy and preservation work is limited to smaller specimens [24] .

The squamates or scaled reptiles (order Squamata), are a highly successful and familiar group of reptiles including lizards, snakes and amphisbaenians [28] . The squamates of the Gaza Strip were best represented in the Biology Department Museum of the Islamic University of Gaza and they are also well represented, live or stuffed, in Gaza zoos as pointed out by Abd Rabou . In fact, Palestine is very attractive to lizards and snakes among other reptilian categories - [104] . The Desert Monitor (Varanus griseus) is the largest among the lizards preserved at the Biology Department Museum. There were more than six preserved specimens of the Desert Monitor, either dry or wet mummified. The species often inhabits different varieties of substrates in the Gaza Strip as was stated by Abd Rabou et al. [5] . This species is locally threatened due to deliberate killing by Gazans for unclear reasons. Some Gazans claimed they killed the animal because it preyed on domestic animals and their eggs. Various studies have confirmed this predation by the Desert Monitor on wild and domestic animals [105] - [107] . The most common stuffed lizards in the Biology Department Museum were the Bosc’s Lizard (Acanthodactylus boskianus), Mediterranean Chameleon (Chameleo chameleon), and Agama (Stellagama stellio). This documentation reflects their wide distribution in nature and in the biology department museums of Palestinian universities in the Gaza Strip [103] .

Colubridae was the largest family of snake species found in the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University of Gaza. This was not surprising, as this family is the largest in Palestine and neighboring Jordan [5] [108] . A clear example of this family is the Syrian Black Snake (Dolichophis jugularis), known locally as the Arbeed. It was the most common non-venomous snake species preserved in the biology museums at local universities as well (Personal Observations). According to local measurements, the species may reach two meters or more in length. By contrast, the Palestine Viper (Daboia palaestinae), which is endemic to Palestine and some of its neighboring countries [111] [112] , was the most poisonous snake encountered in the Biology Department Museum. In fact, Palestine is home to more than 40 snake species, with one-fourth of these snakes being poisonous [41] . Most snake bites in Palestine and even Jordan are commonly attributed to the Palestine Viper as pointed out by many studies [35] [90] [114] . Unfortunately, Gazans sometimes deliberately kill venomous and non-venomous snakes without regard for their ecological role. These behaviors and practices must be stopped in Palestine through effective ecological awareness campaigns.

A recent study revealed the presence of a total of 250 species of resident and migratory birds in the Gaza Strip, both terrestrial and aquatic [115] . Of these birds, only 47 stuffed bird species were recorded in the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University of Gaza. Most of the stuffed birds were brought to the Biology Department live by students or bird hunters. Taxidermy classes for students have undoubtedly contributed to the increase in the number of stuffed bird species there. Poaching of birds such as sparrows, quails, pigeons, waterfowl, waders, birds of prey, etc. is a common practice in the Gaza Strip [116] -. In fact, there are no restrictions on bird hunting in the Gaza Strip, which poses a threat to them [119] . For example, Chukars (Alectoris chukar), Common Quail (Coturnix coturnix), and various species of doves (Streptopelia spp.), among others, were traditionally hunted for their delicious meat, while others like finches, raptors and parrots were hunted for the pet trade - [125] .

The Passeriformes was the largest order, comprising 19 species (40.4%) of the bird species recorded in the Biology Department Museum. This does not seem strange or exceptional, as passerines (order Passeriformes) were the highest rank in many studies conducted in several locations in the Gaza Strip and other localities of Palestine [8] [9] - [128] . Worldwide, passerine birds make up nearly 60% of all living birds as well [129] [130] . Aquatic birds were represented by only seven species (14.9%). The Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) is a scavenging bird [131] found everywhere in the Gaza Strip, especially in valleys, sewage pools, and solid waste dumps , so catching it is not difficult. The Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) looks elegant and is also found in valleys, sewage pools, and even in Gaza City’s fishing port [132] . Although considered an aquatic bird, the White-breasted Kingfisher (Halycon smyrnensis) is found throughout the Gaza Strip and is often recognized by its distinctive calls or its bright blue and brown colors [133] . It is a truly beautiful bird, and Palestinians adore its presence . The Common or River Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) is primarily an aquatic bird, compared to the previous White-breasted Kingfisher, and is therefore not commonly seen in pure terrestrial habitats. However, it has been seen in the fishing port of Gaza City, as well as in other bodies of water and wadis in the Gaza Strip [4] .

The Palestine Sunbird (Cinnyris osea) is the only endemic bird species of Palestine that was preserved in the Biology Department Museum. Of course, it was the smallest preserved bird as well, weighing just a few grams . It inhabits different natural, rural and urban habitats rich in flowering plants [31] [126] [133] . As far as the invasive (exotic or alien) bird species are concerned, there were two species of them prevailing in the Gaza Strip; namely the Common or Indian Myna (Acridotheres tristris) and the Ring-necked Parakeet (Psittacula krameri). The two species seemed to invade the Palestinian environment two decades ago. The remarkable spread of these two invasive bird species in the region can be attributed to deliberate introduction, accidental escapes from zoos, or natural range expansion from neighboring countries [123] - [136] . These two species are captured in large numbers from the open environment using specific methods for keeping in captivity or selling in pet stores [96] . Holzapfel et al. [137] pointed out that the Common Myna was listed as one of the 100 worst invading species worldwide. The Ring-necked Parakeet, with its bright green feathers and red beak, poses several potential threats in Palestine due to its feeding on agricultural crops, especially fruits, and its competition with some local wild birds, especially those that nest in cavities .

The Gaza Strip is home to dozens of species of wild mammals such as bats, rodents, carnivores, insectivores and rare deer and hares, as many studies have shown [43] [109] [138] [139] . The current study revealed only 6 species preserved at the Biology Department Museum. All the mummified mammal species were relatively small, and included two species of hedgehogs, three species of rodents, and the Egyptian Fruit Bat, the largest of the Palestinian bats. The presence of these small mummified mammals can be attributed to the ease of hunting and capturing them, on the one hand, and the ease of formalin mummification in jars or containers, on the other. The absence of preserved specimens of medium or large mammals is primarily due to the limited financial and technical capabilities of the Biology Department Museum to mummify larger specimens.

The two hedgehog species; namely the Long-eared Hedgehog (Hemiechinus auritus) and the Ethiopian Hedgehog (Paraechinus aethiopicus) found in the Biology Department Museum, were common nocturnal mammals of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank [6] [109] [140] . The easy catch of these creatures facilitated their introduction and preservation at all biology exhibitions of the local universities (Personal Observations). Both species are now under serious threat due to habitat destruction and killing for unclear reasons and are rarely consumed as food by a few Bedouin families on the outskirts of the Gaza Strip [139] . Some Palestinians likely eat hedgehogs because they believe they are permissible (halal). From an Islamic perspective, eating hedgehogs appears to be halal, as Al-Ahdal [141] explained in a recent study. In Israel, hedgehogs were poached and hunted among other wildlife species by Thai guest workers for food purposes [142] . The Egyptian Fruit Bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus), several mummified specimens of which are housed in the Biology Department Museum, can be considered a local pest due to its dietary habit of eating fruits, including date palm fruits, which are produced in huge quantities in the Gaza Strip [143] [144] . The aforementioned bat is also considered a harmful pest that attacks agricultural crops, especially ripe fruits, causing economic losses in many Middle Eastern countries [145] - [147] .

Rodentia is the largest mammalian order in Palestine [1] and worldwide [148] . Bottles containing preserved specimens of the Palestinian Mole-rat (Spalax leucodon ehrenbergi) were common in the Biology Department Museum and other museums in local universities. In fact, the ability of this species to dig tunnels between the roots, tubers and bulbs of plants that animals feed on [27] makes it a real pest in the Gaza Strip, threatening crops and plants . The House Mouse (Mus musculus) and the Black Rat (Rattus rattus) are the most common commensal rodents in the Gaza Strip environment, posing a threat to agricultural crops, human health, and property as pointed out by Abd Rabou et al. . This requires the use of multiple control tools, which can sometimes pose a risk to human health and non-target organisms [149] [150] .

In conclusion, the estimated 156 Palestinian marine and terrestrial vertebrate species preserved in the Biology Department Museum at the Islamic University, which were bombed by the Israeli occupation forces at the beginning of the Israeli war that followed October 7, 2023, represent only a fraction of the actual terrestrial and marine wildlife in the Gaza Strip. If the political situation in the Gaza Strip improves and stabilizes, it is essential to allocate large areas to establish well-equipped, well-ventilated, and well-lit zoological museums, housing well-preserved and sustainable animal specimens. The idea of establishing central natural history museums, under the supervision of a responsible scientific authority, would serve as a scientific and educational reference point serving scientific bodies specializing in the environment, biology and biodiversity, as well as all segments of Palestinian society, especially school and university students, with the aim of changing people’s perceptions of the environment and ways to preserve it in the Gaza Strip.