1) All subjects combined ( Table 1 and Figure 1 ). Of the 614 participants, 320 felt their Ego in their head; of these, 40 were in the entire head, 187 in the skull behind the forehead (108 of which were in the brain), 8 on the face (1.3%), and 19 on the superficial forehead (3.1%). Thirty-two subjects placed it in their eyes, 21 behind the eyes inside the skull, 2 in the cyclops eye position, and 2 in both ears. Regarding the localization in the neck, it was located in 16 cases in the throat and in 1 case in the nape of the neck. One hundred and forty-five subjects felt the Ego in the heart (or 173 in the heart including the precordium), 3 in a hypothetical right heart, 12 in the extra-cardiac thorax (mediastinum), 1 deep in the lungs, 2 in the nipples, and 2 in the muscular wall of the back. Twenty-five felt it in the diaphragm, 66 (10.7%) in the abdomen (of which 14 in the precisely indicated navel, 25 in the epigastrium, 11 in the hypogastrium, 13 in the intestine, 2 in the spleen, and 2 in the anterior muscular wall); 5 placed it in the pubic area. One hundred and forty-one felt it in the limbs (104 in the upper limbs and 37 in the lower limbs). Among the limbs, the hands (n = 63), the feet (n = 40) and the elbows (n = 10) were the most frequently indicated localizations. Only 2 subjects placed the Ego outside the body (in one case with autoscopic vision). A halo was sometimes referred to the entire body (n = 11) ( Figure 2 ) or to a part of it such as the head (n = 55), chest (n = 8), abdomen (n = 6), and limbs (n = 6). The halo was an integral part of the Ego or was the Ego. Thirteen subjects (7 males aged 21.3 ± 16.1 years with 10.3 ± 3.2 years of schooling and 6 females aged 25.2 ± 22.4 years with 9.5 ± 7.2 years of schooling) returned a blank questionnaire, while 3 (1 male aged 57 with 24 years of schooling and 2 females aged 57 and 59 years with 24 years of schooling) stated not to know where their Ego was. The sum is greater than the number of participants because several subjects identified multiple localizations. The detailed percentage of these localizations by side and gender is reported in Table 1 .

2) Childhood subjects. Between the ages of 5 and 12, the Ego was felt in the head in 42.9% of cases and specifically in the brain in 7.6% of cases, five times more often in males than in females. It was positioned in the heart in 25.2% of cases, with a clear and significant 2-fold prevalence in females than in males (p < 0.001). In females compared to males, there was a clear prevalence of Ego in the spleen and navel, while in males there was a significantly greater prevalence of Ego in the right hand, right thig, and both feet. The other localizations are shown in Table 2 .

3) Adolescent subjects. In the teen-agers (between the ages of 13 and 19), the Ego was felt in the head in 54.2% of cases, with no sex polarization. It was felt in the heart in 23.8% of cases, three times more frequently in females than in males. It was also felt in the thighs in a small percentage of males (0.9% on both the right and left sides) but never in females. The other localizations are shown in Table 3 .

4) Adult subjects. In subjects >19 years of age, the Ego was felt in the head in 60.6% of cases (more precisely in the brain in 37%), in the heart in 19.6%, with a non-significant female predominance (p = 0.08), and behind the eyes in 11 cases (10.3%) without any sex difference. The other localizations are shown in Table 4 .

In all subjects considered together, the decision to place the Ego in the head was directly associated with years of schooling (OR 1.110, p < 0.037), while age and gender were indifferent. Nevertheless, within the head, the localization of the Ego in the brain was directly associated not only with years of study (OR 1.165, p = 0.049) but also inversely with male gender (OR 0.626, p = 0.014).

The localization outside the head was inversely associated with both years of study (OR 0.926, p = 0.009) and male gender (OR 0.694, p = 0.037). The Ego in the abdomen was directly associated with age (OR 1.043, p = 0.037), while gender and schooling had no impact. Ego in the heart was inversely associated with male sex (OR 0.260, p < 0.0001) while age and education had no impact.

The same was true, with slightly different parameters (OR 0.346, p = 0.003), for the extended anatomical localization of the heart defined as precordium. No parameters associated with localization in the thorax could be identified. Ego in the upper extremities was associated directly with male sex (OR 4.427, p < 0.0001) and inversely with education level (OR 0.791, p < 0.0001). This was also true for the lower limbs, which were directly associated with male sex (OR 1.544, p < 0.0001) and inversely with years of schooling (OR 0.731, p = 0.003), while upper limb localization was directly associated with male sex (OR 3.360, p < 0.001) but not with education. The accuracy of self-localization (using arrows, dots, highlighted areas, or other unique markers) was directly associated with years of schooling (OR 0.454, p = 0.023), and was independent of sex and age, while it was always associated with the multiplicity of localizations, which however did not affect the models. Localization in multiple was directly associated with the presence of halos (OR 2.076, p = 0.008) and was also the only parameter directly associated with localization in the auditory-phonatory system (OR 1.786, p < 0.0001) and in the visual system (OR 1.578, p < 0.0001).

In males only, localization in the head was directly associated with years of education (OR 0.171, p = 0.007), localization in the brain directly with years of education (OR 1.199, p = 0.015) and inversely with age (OR −0.123, p = 0.045), localization outside the head inversely associated with years of education (OR 0.171, p = 0.007), and localization in the limbs in general (OR 0.801, p = 0.011) and in the lower limbs in particular (OR 0.728, p = 0.042) was inversely associated with education level. Localization in the heart or precordium was not associated with any parameter despite being more represented in females than in males. The number of Ego localizations participated directly in all models without affecting them.

In females, localization in the head was inversely associated with age (OR 0.094, p = 0.023), while localization in the precisely indicated heart (OR −0.784, p = 0.047) and precordium (OR −0.828, p = 0.05) was inversely associated with the presence of a halo. Localization in the limbs in general (OR 0.743, p = 0.003) and lower limbs in particular (OR −0.372, p = 0.034) was associated with years of education.

As mentioned above, the Ego was frequently perceived as multiple both in females and in males ( Table 5 and Figure 2 ).

In the entire cohort, 79 subjects (36 males and 43 females) perceived two Ego, 23 (11 males and 12 females) perceived three, 13 (3 males and 10 females) perceived four, 4 (2 males and 2 females) perceived five, 3 (1 male and 2 females) perceived six, and 1 male perceived seven.

Among the children, multiple Ego were two in 29 cases (16 males and 13 females), three in 9 cases (5 males and 4 females), four in 2 cases (2 males and 2 females), five in 2 males, and six in 1 male. Among adolescents, 39 (16 males and 22 females) experienced two Ego, 8 (3 males and 5 females) experienced three, 6 (1 male and 5 females) experienced four, 2 females experienced five, 2 females experienced six, and 1 female experienced seven. Among adults over 19 years of age, 12 (4 males and 8 females) experienced two Ego, 6 (2 males and 4 females) experienced three, and 3 females experienced four. The most frequent and significant combinations were head + heart, brain + heart, and head + abdomen (all more frequently in females under the age of 20 years), and head + upper limbs. These were followed by head + thorax, head + diaphragm, head + intestines, head + lower limbs, and brain + abdomen.

Both in males and females, the number of Ego localizations participated directly in all models without affecting them.

The ROC curve analysis provided the univariate high/low cut-offs of age. Only those conformed in multivariate LOGIT adjusted for confounders were considered as valid. Based on multivariate analysis, the cutoffs confirmed as valid for both males and females were those for the head, skull, brain, behind the eyes, heart (including the heart as precordium), thorax, abdomen, and limbs (including hands and feet). Including the cutoff values in place of the native variable yielded the results summarized in Table 6 . The frequency of placement was significantly higher in the head, cranium and brain above 11, 14, and 13 years of age, respectively, and higher in these localizations above 8 years of schooling. Localization behind the eyes was higher after 16 years of age and after 11 years of study. Localization in the heart was higher up to 14 years of age and up to 16 years of study, while that in the mediastinum was higher above 14 years of age and 9 years of study, after which the differences disappeared. Only starting at 29 years of age and 14 years of study was the Ego most often located in the abdomen. The Ego was most often located in the upper limbs under 14 years of age (under 11 years for the hands) and under 8 years of study (under 6 years for the hands), in the lower limbs under 12 years of age and under 13 years of study.

Our results demonstrate that, in 98% of cases, general population subjects are able, from the age of 5, to indicate the localization where they perceive their Ego, and they do so easily and willingly, without having to force themselves. This localization is perceived and reported as being inside the body in 99.7% of cases and outside the body in 0.3%. It is single in 79.9% of cases and multiple in 20.1%.

The Ego is perceived in the head in just over half of cases (but in the skull in only 30.5% and in the brain in only 17.6%), percentages that increase in both males and females with increasing age (especially after age 11) and level of education (especially after 8 years of formal study), demonstrating that the Ego in the head is an acquired and cultural trait rather than innate.

More precisely, a relatively low percentage of people places the Ego exactly in the brain (20.5% after the age of 13 and 2.9% before this age). The Ego in the brain is absent before 8 years of schooling, indicating a role for modern education in giving importance to the brain as the seat of mental activity. In ancient times (at least until Leonardo da Vinci), the brain was undervalued and considered merely an organ designed to cool the blood. Unlike the heart, which appears in βιβλία in 785 verses, the brain is mentioned only twice, as κακόφρων (kakófron, which translates the Hebrew טעם) and as μανία (manìa, i.e. strangeness, extravagance). It was only in the post-medieval era that it began to be seen as the seat of what was then called the soul (the concept of the mind did not yet exist, and the ψυχή (psyché, psiche) was a very concrete function devoid of the modern connotations we usually attribute to it). Today, there is once again a tendency to reject the ghost in the box paradigm, and the psyche is considered a widespread function. The Ego in the head is sometimes located in the eyes (the mirror of the soul in Western culture), sometimes behind the eyes or in the Cyclops’ eye, particularly after the age of 16 and after 11 years of schooling. The view converges behind the eyes, and modern architecture tends to center the perspective lines behind the eyes. Hair (especially depicted in girls) was the seat of strength in mythology. The mouth (especially indicated before the age of 18 and 15 years of education) is the seat of speech; in some cultures, such as the Jewish one, the voice is everything, and in fact, the localization in the mouth or throat (where the vocal cords are located) is accompanied in 1.5% of cases by the localization in the ears. The Ego is perceived exclusively or even outside the head in 41.4% of cases, as discussed below.

With maturity and increasing educational level, the Ego’s preference for other organs, such as the abdomen, chest, heart, and limbs, strongly decreases, reflecting current culture-induced thinking in contrast to the ancient one that located the functions that we today define psychic in the thoracic and abdominal interiors. In prehistory and throughout the history of Homo sapiens, at the beginning of the transition from strictly symbolic to linguistic thought ( Johansson, 2019 ), the Ego was mostly located outside the head. The ancient Greeks imagined it in the liver, stomach, diaphragm, blood, and other localizations we now consider internal; we might say in the interiora (entrails, in Latin), from which the modern term interiority derives ( Casiglia, 2020 ; Jaynes, 1976 ). Sumerian has several terms for heart: šag indicates heart, head, intestines, viscera, uterus, stomach, and abdomen. In Hebrew, the plural wordםימחר (rahamîm, entrails, womb, uterus) also indicates the set of all wombs and equally well the paternal affection for the child. In practical terms, today only young and uncultured subjects tend to place the Ego outside the head ( Casiglia, 2020 ; Jaynes, 1976 ).

Localization in the heart (presented in our experience exclusively in female adolescents) is the main reason for the Ego’s preference for the chest, followed by the mediastinum. For millennia, heart has been considered the seat of the Ego and of the soul, a concept that has come down to us in specific beliefs (such as those against heart transplants) or symbols (such as the hand on the heart during significant public ceremonies). In βιβλία (Bible), the heart appears in 625 verses of the Old Testament and in about 160 of the New Testament, while the brain is mentioned only twice, as κακόφρων (kakófron, which translates the Hebrew טעם) and as μανία (manìa, meaning strangeness, extravagance). The heart in the Nova Vulgata corresponds to cor in Latin, to καρδία (kardia) in Greek, and to לב or לבב (leb or lebab) in Hebrew. In The Text of the Thirty heart it indicates something that lies in the middle, important for psychosocial life. Even in the New Testament, the word heart never refers to the heart pump, but always to something like the interior life. Today we can say that the biblical heart refers to our unconscious, if it is true thatקֹהֶלֶת (Qōhelet), speaking of man, states that not even at night does his heart rest ( Bible, 2008 ). In ancient times the term heart symbolically designated the whole person in the unity of consciousness, intelligence and freedom ( Casiglia, 2020 ), indicated the interiority, was the seat of memory and the center of operations, choices, and plans (what we now call narratization) ( Jaynes, 1976 ). Jung would say that the heart is the Selbst (Self), which, however, is achieved through a complicated process of individuation ( Jung, 2015 ).

The Ego in the mediastinum and more generally in the extra-cardiac thorax finds a correspondence in the Greek θυμός (thumós), a very concrete faculty considered to coincide with life or vitality which emerged following fatal wounds. In our study, the cardiac localization is typical of adolescent females only, probably in relation to the high prevalence of sentimental heart problems felt in this age range in the population taken into account. The Ego in the nipples has clear sexual connotations linked to personal experiences but also to collective sedimentations. Localization in lower limbs and particular in feet is mostly chosen by school-age males, perhaps related to gymnastics and sports, particularly Italian soccer. Only after 18 years of age and 16 years of formal study does the Ego localization outside the body become more frequent, either as a detached site (sometimes with autoscopic vision) ( Facco, 2010 ; Facco et al., 2019 ) or as a halo surrounding a body area or the entire body.

Many subjects (26.6%) experienced the Ego as multiple, positioning it in different localizations. This is due to the well-known fact that the Ego is nothing more than a metaphor, and can be felt anywhere, within or outside the body, without any harm to mental health if the multiplicity is not accompanied by clinical mental disorders. Our study demonstrates that, although the majority of psychiatrists consider a multiple Ego a sign of pathology, this is not necessarily true, as the phenomenon occurs in a large portion of healthy general population. Various philosophers and psychoanalysts have long clarified that the Ego is made up of discrete parts, although it is most often perceived as a single Ego or there is one dominant Ego ( Jaynes, 1976 ). After Wirchow ( Boldrini et al., 2015 ), the Ego decisively ceases to be a monolithic unit, a simple substance, to become an unstable compound, an archipelago of islands of consciousness, a coalition consciousness whose structure is not dissimilar to that of the coral polyps. The Ego of normal individuals is only the strongest, not the only one; its hegemony is based on a system of constructed alliances, and requires a continuous expenditure of energy ( Jung, 2015 ). To speak of an individual (an indivisible entity) is now etymologically absurd, given that the Ego is seen not as a monarchical figure but as a democratic archipelago with a ruler, perhaps not even always the same one. When the hegemonic Ego is missing or not adequately formed, multiple personalities can manifest, representing a rare pathological variant of normality not emerging from our results. Psychiatrists (especially because the diagnostic manuals say so) prefer to deal with people who are convinced to have a unique Ego. Moreover, non-pathologic episodes of Ego dissociation frequently and normally occur in everyday life. And in hypnosis ( Casiglia, 2015 ; Casiglia, 2025 ; Casiglia & Gadotti, 2022 ) it is very easy to split the Ego (indeed, dissociation is an integral part of the hypnotic procedure consequent to receptor effects) ( Casiglia, 2024 ). Only when accompanied by personally or socially disruptive disorders is the multiple Ego (then called multiple personality) indicative of illness. From an anthropological perspective, the multiplicity of the Ego can be traced back to its origins from the aggregation of unconscious bicameral voices in the late Neolithic ( Casiglia, 2020 ; Casiglia et al., 2016 ; Jaynes, 1976 ).

The present study has primarily anthropological implications and helps mind professionals understand that people are aware of their ego and know where to locate it. An interesting applied finding is that the ego is often perceived as multiple, which gives experimental support to the theory that the ego is an entity composed of subunits; this may explain to psychiatrists why—due to dissociation, disintegration, or loss of a dominant ego—multiple personalities already latently present within the subject’s ego structure can sometimes manifest. Another important consequence is educational and didactic, especially since the study includes childhood and adolescent age groups never previously considered in this type of analysis.