Although incremental progress has been made toward gender parity, a significant gap remains in the representation of women in managerial and executive leadership positions globally (Grant & Levasseur, 2025 ; LeanIn.org, 2019 ; Oakley, 2000 ). Historically, the concept of the glass ceiling has received widespread attention as a metaphor for invisible barriers that impede women’s rise to senior leadership roles. However, emerging research has identified the broken rung—defined as the disproportionately low rate at which women are promoted from entry-level positions to their first managerial roles, the gender gap at the first step up to management—as a more critical bottleneck that leads to cumulative disadvantages in women’s career progression ( Kratz, 2025 ; LeanIn.org, 2019 ; McFee, 2024 ). The “broken rung” is directly responsible for early career attrition, as women who are passed over at this initial stage are more likely to leave or stagnate in their careers. The terms “broken rung” and “early career attrition” are not used interchangeably; rather, the broken rung is presented as a principal driver of early career attrition for women, causing lasting imbalances in the leadership pipeline. This article reviews and critically assesses both concepts, synthesizing findings across quantitative data, qualitative evidence, and theoretical frameworks. The objectives are to: (a) compare the severity and interaction of these two barriers; (b) identify empirical and theoretical gaps; (c) consider alternative explanations for underrepresentation; and (d) offer actionable recommendations for organizations and policymakers.

This study employs a comparative and integrative literature synthesis, drawing from peer-reviewed journal articles, organizational surveys, and international case studies. Sources span U.S., Asian, and African contexts ( Essel, 2023 ; Greening, 2019 ; Kratz, 2025 ; Syaebani et al., 2024 ). Relevant literature was identified based on the scope of existing research on the “broken rung,” “glass ceiling,” gender leadership barriers, and women’s advancement, as articulated in these sources.

Studies included:

Exclusion criteria:

No database search outside of the sources found in the supplied reference list was performed. The review process was designed to ensure all findings, comparisons, and syntheses are strictly supported by and limited to the original sources detailed in this document’s references. Synthesis of findings occurred both quantitatively and qualitatively, following the methodologies illustrated by the referenced works. Quantitative data on promotion and leadership representation were paired with qualitative themes from interviews and sociocultural analyses. The review also integrates dissenting theories—including leadership self-selection and stereotype threat—to expand interpretive depth and highlight divergent causal explanations ( Oakley, 2000 ; Shirley & Feitosa, 2024 ).

The Broken Rung: Barrier to Advancement in Management

Across sectors and regions, the “broken rung” represents a major source of attrition for women’s leadership potential. For example, for every 100 men promoted to a managerial role, only 72 to 87 women receive the same opportunity; these numbers fall even lower for women of color in the U.S. ( Kratz, 2025 ; LeanIn.org, 2019 ). In Indonesia, for example, deeply embedded occupational gender norms result in women being excluded from promotion pipelines even before eligibility is considered (Syaebani et al., 2024). Other contributing factors include peer and supervisory bias, lack of sponsorship, and non-transparent promotion practices (Oakley, 2000 ; Parmer, 2021 ).

The Glass Ceiling: Barrier to Reaching Senior Leadership

For women who overcome the first hurdle, advancement into senior leadership is often blocked by the glass ceiling—persistent exclusion from top roles, unequal compensation, and stereotype-driven scrutiny ( Oakley, 2000 ; Wang et al., 2019 ). Although female representation in management has improved marginally, board and C-suite diversity remains stagnant, with women often required to emulate traditionally masculine leadership traits to gain legitimacy ( Chen et al., 2016 ; Wang et al., 2019 ). Evidence from Ghana and Japan reveals that even in environments where women hold managerial roles, disparities in executive authority and pay persisted ( Essel, 2023 ; Greening, 2019 ).

The Promotion Pipeline Effect

Based on the data in Table 1 , if there were no “broken rung,” the probability of a woman being promoted to an executive role (thus breaking the glass ceiling) relative to a man being promoted to an executive role would range between 0.58 and 0.78. On average, a 68% chance compared to a man. However, due to the “broken rung” at the first step in the career ladder (first level manager) and at the other managerial roles level in the career ladder, for every man that reaches the executive level, the likelihood of a woman being promoted to first level manager then into other managerial roles and then into an executive role (thus breaking the glass ceiling) ranges from a probability of 0.32 to 0.58. On average, a 45% chance compared to a man. Stated differently, the broken rung phenomenon, which results in a 25% to 44% reduction in the pool of women available for promotion to executive roles, has a first order effect on women’s chances of reaching the executive suite, while the glass ceiling has a second order effect.

Comparative impact and interaction synthesized findings suggest that the broken rung is more impactful than the glass ceiling due to its early-stage disruption of leadership pipelines ( Kratz, 2025 ; LeanIn.org, 2019 ; McFee, 2024 ). This initial bottleneck disproportionately affects women of color and women in culturally conservative sectors ( Kaba, 2012 ; Syaebani et al., 2024 ), ultimately reducing the pool of candidates eligible for senior advancement and mentorship—thus compounding the effect of the glass ceiling ( Shirley & Feitosa, 2024 ). Notably, intersectionality highlights that race, ethnicity, and other identity dimensions further compound barriers: for example, in the United States, Black women and Latinas are promoted at significantly lower rates than white women at the first managerial step, reinforcing both vertical and horizontal inequalities in organizational hierarchies ( Kaba, 2012 ; LeanIn.org, 2019 ). Similarly, women from marginalized backgrounds may face compounded stereotypes and discrimination that intensify both the broken rung and the glass ceiling. Addressing these layered inequities requires intersectional approaches that consider the specific challenges faced by diverse groups of women, as discussed in Kaba (2012) . While the glass ceiling remains a formidable barrier, it is structurally a second order effect. Without early interventions, upper-level representation remains limited, regardless of top-down reforms.

To address both the broken rung and the glass ceiling, the following organizational initiatives are recommended:

1) Implement and audit standardized, transparent promotion processes—especially at the entry-management level ( Kratz, 2025 ; McFee, 2024 ).

2) Expand leadership development and sponsorship programs, emphasizing high visibility stretch assignments ( Essel, 2023 ; Oakley, 2000 ).

3) Mandate pay equity and diversity reporting at the departmental level, making data public where feasible ( Kaba, 2012 ; Wang et al., 2019 ).

4) Normalize flexible work policies and caregiving accommodations to retain and promote women during family-building years ( Parmer, 2021 ).

5) Invest in early incentives and motivation-building programs for women.

6) Broaden recruitment strategies to address occupational segregation and disrupt gendered pipeline limitations (Syaebani et al., 2024).

The broken rung—women’s lack of promotion into initial managerial roles—emerges as the most significant and foundational barrier to the appropriate representation of women in leadership. Left unaddressed, this issue constrains progress at all subsequent stages, including the glass ceiling. Achieving gender equity requires a dual focus: repairing the broken rung and eliminating the glass ceiling. Intersectional, longitudinal research is essential to identify, measure, and dismantle systemic barriers across sectors and societies ( LeanIn.org, 2019 ; Kratz, 2025 ; Syaebani et al., 2024 ).