Wind energy, which dates back over three thousand years, is seeing a rebirth due to its environmental and economic advantages [3] . Originally utilized for purposes like water pumping, it faced competition in the twentieth century but has since increased due to technical advancements and favorable legislation [4] . Improved turbine technology has increased yearly energy yields by 5% while lowering weight and noise [4] . Mathematical models such as the Weibull and Rayleigh distributions are critical for determining energy production potential and site selection [4] . Despite its expansion, wind energy has obstacles such as vibration and noise; yet technological improvements provide solutions such as supervisory controls and simulation models [4] . Global trends and regulations encourage wind energy expansion, doubling grid-connected capacity every three years, seeking to reduce fossil fuel dependence and battle climate change. US research investigates the use of wind energy for green hydrogen generation, citing large wind potential and present production gaps [5] . Green hydrogen, with four times the energy density of petrol or diesel, is considered a feasible energy source [6] . An example study implies that an 8-MW turbine in Texas might fulfil substantial hydrogen demand, emphasising the importance of precision turbine placement owing to regional wind variability [5] .

The transition to a hydrogen-based economy will first require the use of fossil fuels, particularly natural gas, which emits less carbon than oil and coal. Integrating hydrogen into existing natural gas infrastructure is both technically viable and economically beneficial [7] . Environmental advantages are dependent on manufacturing purity and technology. Hydrogen kinds are categorised by colour. Grey hydrogen is produced from hydrocarbons with CO₂ emissions [8] . Blue hydrogen is derived from hydrocarbons and uses carbon capture and storage (CCS) to regulate emissions. Green hydrogen is produced using water electrolysis utilising renewable energy, with low emissions [9] . Other hydrogen varieties include brown (from coal gasification), turquoise (from methane pyrolysis), and pink (from water electrolysis using nuclear power) [9] . There are more techniques for splitting water, such as thermochemical and photocatalytic [10] . Economic reasons, technological preparedness, and scalability are all significant difficulties for sustainable hydrogen generation technologies. Methane reforming is popular because to its viability, particularly for automotive applications, although blue hydrogen is valued for its cost advantage over electrolysis [10] .

Water electrolysis converts water into hydrogen and oxygen using electrical energy. The system consists of an anode, cathode, electrolyte (usually an aqueous solution or ceramic membrane), and power source. Electrolyser efficiency ranges from 65% to 75%, depending on electrode distance, electrolyte quantity, and operating temperature [11] . Compression, storage, and transmission of hydrogen result in losses of up to 35%, with an overall conversion efficiency of 70% for on-site consumption or injection into the gas network [12] . Fuel cell efficiency suffers from energy losses caused by electrical resistance and mass diffusion, resulting in a total process efficiency of 35% [13] . Commercial electrolysis uses two basic processes: alkaline and PEM (proton exchange membrane). Alkaline technique, which has been used for decades, is well-established yet inefficient. PEM technology is perfect for integrating renewable energy sources because of its high efficiency, low size, and operational adaptability [13] .

Hydrogen, while being invisible and having no taste or odour, is becoming increasingly popular for energy delivery due to its high energy density and ubiquitous availability [14] . Effective hydrogen storage technologies are essential for developing sustainable energy sources. The several storage techniques are as follows:

Effective hydrogen storage technologies are critical to hydrogen’s widespread use as a sustainable energy source. Each storage system has unique benefits and drawbacks, necessitating continual study and innovation to overcome limitations and improve efficacy.

Considering the global energy crisis and environmental concerns, hydrogen is emerging as an essential component of the transition to sustainable energy [16] . The European Commission, for example, is extensively financing hydrogen programmes with the objective of producing 50% of hydrogen from renewable sources by 2030 [16] . This increased investment highlights hydrogen’s importance in tackling environmental issues and developing sustainable fuel solutions. Hydrogen fuel cells use electrochemical principles with hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, water, and heat as byproducts [17] . The fuel cell stack, like a battery, consists of an electrolyte membrane sandwiched between electrodes, which are supported by auxiliary components in the Balance of Plant (BoP), such as heat and water management systems [17] . Integrating hydrogen fuel cells into marine transportation offers significant environmental advantages, such as a projected 70% decrease in carbon emissions by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2050 [18] . These fuel cells have great energy conversion efficiency and produce no pollutants, making them a sustainable energy source [17] .

Despite these benefits, obstacles persist, demanding economic and environmental impact studies to maximise hydrogen fuel utilisation [16] . Overcoming these barriers is critical for the broad implementation of fuel cell hydrogen technology. Hydrogen fuel cell cars are a successful implementation of this technology, utilising both fuel cells and lithium batteries for energy management in transportation [19] . With worldwide momentum and major investments driving hydrogen sector growth, the future appears bright for fuel cell hydrogen technology.

The energy harnessed from the motion of air at velocity V across a designated area A is expressed as ρAV. Therefore,

$\text{Power wind}=\frac{1}{2}\rho A{V}^3\left(\text{W}\right)$(1)

whree,

ρ = air density (kg/m³)

V = wind speed (m/s)

Wind energy is directly proportional to air density (ρ), the surface area exposed (A), and the cube of the wind speed ( $V^3$). Air density, influenced by air pressure and temperature, is contingent upon the elevation above sea level.

$\rho \left(z\right)=\frac{P_0}{\left(R\cdot T\right)\exp \left(-g\cdot \frac{z}{RT}\right)}$(2)

where,

ρ(z) = air density as a function of altitude (kg/m³)

P₀ = standard sea level atmospheric pressure (kg/m³)

R = gas constant for air (J/K∙mol)

T = temperature (K)

g = gravity constant (m/s²)

z = altitude above sea level (m)

Wind power represents the energy available per unit of time in the wind. This energy is converted into mechanical rotational energy in the wind turbine rotor, which slows down the air mass. It’s impossible to extract all wind power because doing so would stop the airflow in the turbine’s path, creating congestion for incoming air masses.

Wind turbines generate alternating current (AC), which must be converted into direct current (DC) before electrolysis can produce hydrogen. This conversion process is necessary because electrolysis, which converts water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, requires a constant DC input.

This conversion is carried out using a rectifier. A rectifier is a device that transforms alternating current to direct current by allowing electricity to flow in just one direction, generally using diodes. This rectification technique converts wind turbines’ AC output into a stable DC form suited for electrolysis. The formula for rectification involves the use of diodes in a rectifier circuit. The instantaneous output voltage (V_dc) of a single-phase, half-wave rectifier can be given by the following equation:

$V_{dc}=\frac{V_{\max }}{\pi }$ (3)

Following rectification, a DC-DC converter is used to alter the voltage levels to meet the unique needs of the electrolysis system. The DC-DC converter is crucial to preserving the integrity of the DC supply, ensuring that it satisfies the appropriate voltage required for effective hydrogen generation or to ensure that the voltage supplied to the electrolyzer remains within its optimal operating range, improving system reliability and efficiency.

This converter works on magnetic field principles, allowing for exact voltage control while also providing a steady and stable DC input to the electrolysis process. The voltage transformation in a DC-DC converter can be mathematically expressed using the formula:

$V_{out}=\frac{D}{1-d}\times V_{in}$ (4)

The electrolysis device converts direct current (DC) from a power source into a voltage suitable for splitting water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. The chosen model operates effectively at stable voltage (~240 V) and pressure (~0.95 bar), suggesting it is designed for modular, low-pressure operation suited to renewable energy inputs. Its consistent performance across variable power inputs supports its suitability for wind-powered hydrogen generation. It operates with two electrodes, an anode (+) and a cathode (−), immersed in water. The anode connects to the positive terminal of the power supply, and the cathode connects to the negative terminal. Through this process, electrolysis produces green hydrogen and releases oxygen as a byproduct. The electrolysis of water involves two main electrochemical reactions occurring at the anode and cathode:

At the anode (oxidation)

$2{\text{H}}_2\text{O}={\text{O}}_2+4{\text{H}}^{+}+4{\text{e}}^{-}$(5)

At the cathode (reduction)

$4{\text{H}}_{\text{2}}\text{O}+4{\text{e}}^{-}=2{\text{H}}_2+4{\text{OH}}^{-}$(6)

The overall reaction

$2{\text{H}}_{\text{2}}\text{O}=2{\text{H}}_2+{\text{O}}_2$(7)

With the hydrogen produced, the fuel cell now takes center stage. The fundamental principle of a hydrogen fuel cell involves the electrochemical conversion of hydrogen and oxygen into water, releasing electrical energy in the process. The overall reaction in a hydrogen fuel cell is:

$2{\text{H}}_2+{\text{O}}_2=2{\text{H}}_{\text{2}}\text{O}+\text{electric current}$ (8)

Equation (8) encapsulates the core function of the fuel cell, where hydrogen gas at the anode undergoes oxidation to produce protons and electrons. Simultaneously, oxygen gas at the cathode accepts these electrons and combines with protons to form water. The electrons generated during the oxidation half-reaction travel through an external circuit, generating an electric current that can be harnessed for various applications.

The first data is from Melaka, Malaysia. Table 1 presents the Wind Turbine Parameters for Simulation Study in Melaka, Malaysia.

Figure 3 shows the Data Analysis of Hydrogen Production at Melaka, Malaysia.

The second data is from Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia. Table 2 presents the Wind Turbine Parameters for Simulation Study in Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia.

Figure 4 shows the Data Analysis of Hydrogen Production at Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia.

The third data is from Tafila, Jordan. Table 3 presents the Wind Turbine Parameters for Simulation Study in Tafila, Jordan.

Figure 5 shows the Data Analysis of Hydrogen Production at Tafila, Jordan.

The fourth data is from Gansu, China. Table 4 presents the Wind Turbine Parameters for Simulation Study in Gansu, China.

Figure 6 shows the Data Analysis of Hydrogen Production at Gansu, China.

The data in Table 5 demonstrates the relationship between wind speed and hydrogen production efficiency across various system components for 4 cases.

At lower wind speeds, such as 1.75 m/s, the wind generator produces 22.4 kW of power. The electrolyze requires 136.51 kWh/kg to produce 1.5 kg of hydrogen under these conditions, with a resulting power output of 22.4 kW at 0.945 bar pressure. As wind speed increases to 2.80 m/s, power output improves slightly to 22.8 kW, reducing energy consumption to 120.24 kWh/kg and increasing hydrogen production to 2.0 kg.

At a moderate wind speed of 8.50 m/s, the wind generator ramps up to 39.35 kW, stabilizing the electrolyzed voltage at 240.6 VDC. This results in a significant drop in energy consumption to 26.29 kWh/kg, producing 15.0 kg of hydrogen with a power output of 31.3 kW.

At the highest wind speed of 12.0 m/s, the wind generator achieves 45.50 kW output, maintaining steady electrolyze efficiency. Energy consumption further decreases to 35.29 kWh/kg while producing 20.0 kg of hydrogen, with a constant power output of 31.3 kW. Overall, the data highlights that as wind speed increases, the system’s efficiency improves, characterized by reduced energy consumption per kilogram of hydrogen produced. This indicates the system’s capability to effectively handle higher power inputs while maintaining efficiency in hydrogen production.

The sensitivity of hydrogen production outputs to different wind speeds underscores the importance of optimizing system parameters for enhanced efficiency. Lower wind speeds typically result in higher energy consumption and lower hydrogen yields, whereas moderate to high wind speeds enhance overall system performance.

Future research should focus on developing optimal configurations for electrolyzes tailored to variable wind conditions. This entails exploring advanced materials and technologies that can boost system efficiency. Real-time monitoring coupled with adaptive control systems will be crucial in leveraging fluctuating renewable energy sources effectively for hydrogen production. By addressing these areas, advancements can be made towards achieving more sustainable energy solutions that harness wind power efficiently for green hydrogen production.