<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD Journal Publishing DTD v3.0 20080202//EN" "http://dtd.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/3.0/journalpublishing3.dtd">
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" dtd-version="3.0" xml:lang="en" article-type="research article">
 <front>
  <journal-meta>
   <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">
    msce
   </journal-id>
   <journal-title-group>
    <journal-title>
     Journal of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering
    </journal-title>
   </journal-title-group>
   <issn pub-type="epub">
    2327-6045
   </issn>
   <issn publication-format="print">
    2327-6053
   </issn>
   <publisher>
    <publisher-name>
     Scientific Research Publishing
    </publisher-name>
   </publisher>
  </journal-meta>
  <article-meta>
   <article-id pub-id-type="doi">
    10.4236/msce.2025.138001
   </article-id>
   <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">
    msce-144812
   </article-id>
   <article-categories>
    <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
     <subject>
      Articles
     </subject>
    </subj-group>
    <subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v2">
     <subject>
      Chemistry 
     </subject>
     <subject>
       Materials Science
     </subject>
    </subj-group>
   </article-categories>
   <title-group>
    Investigation of Physicochemical Property and Transport Coefficients of Liquid Aluminum (Al): Temperature Dependence Revisited
   </title-group>
   <contrib-group>
    <contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple">
     <name name-style="western">
      <surname>
       Fysol Ibna
      </surname>
      <given-names>
       Abbas
      </given-names>
     </name> 
     <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"> 
      <sup>1</sup>
     </xref>
    </contrib>
    <contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple">
     <name name-style="western">
      <surname>
       Shantanu
      </surname>
      <given-names>
       Chakraborty
      </given-names>
     </name> 
     <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"> 
      <sup>2</sup>
     </xref> 
     <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"> 
      <sup>3</sup>
     </xref>
    </contrib>
    <contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple">
     <name name-style="western">
      <surname>
       Mousume
      </surname>
      <given-names>
       Samad
      </given-names>
     </name> 
     <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"> 
      <sup>4</sup>
     </xref> 
     <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"> 
      <sup>5</sup>
     </xref>
    </contrib>
   </contrib-group> 
   <aff id="aff1">
    <addr-line>
     aDepartment of Electrical&amp;Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Science&amp;Technology, City University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
    </addr-line> 
   </aff> 
   <aff id="aff2">
    <addr-line>
     aDepartment of Applied Mathematics and Physics, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, Georgia, USA
    </addr-line> 
   </aff> 
   <aff id="aff3">
    <addr-line>
     aNational High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
    </addr-line> 
   </aff> 
   <aff id="aff4">
    <addr-line>
     aDepartment of Electrical and Electronic Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Saitama University, Saitama, Japan
    </addr-line> 
   </aff> 
   <aff id="aff5">
    <addr-line>
     aDepartment of Information and Communication Engineering, Bangladesh Army University of Engineering and Technology (BAUET), Qadirabad, Bangladesh
    </addr-line> 
   </aff> 
   <pub-date pub-type="epub">
    <day>
     15
    </day> 
    <month>
     08
    </month>
    <year>
     2025
    </year>
   </pub-date> 
   <volume>
    13
   </volume> 
   <issue>
    08
   </issue>
   <fpage>
    1
   </fpage>
   <lpage>
    14
   </lpage>
   <history>
    <date date-type="received">
     <day>
      12,
     </day>
     <month>
      July
     </month>
     <year>
      2025
     </year>
    </date>
    <date date-type="published">
     <day>
      12,
     </day>
     <month>
      July
     </month>
     <year>
      2025
     </year> 
    </date> 
    <date date-type="accepted">
     <day>
      12,
     </day>
     <month>
      August
     </month>
     <year>
      2025
     </year> 
    </date>
   </history>
   <permissions>
    <copyright-statement>
     © Copyright 2014 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. 
    </copyright-statement>
    <copyright-year>
     2014
    </copyright-year>
    <license>
     <license-p>
      This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
     </license-p>
    </license>
   </permissions>
   <abstract>
    The physicochemical property (PHP) and transport coefficients (TC) of liquid aluminum (Al) have been studied based on how they change with temperature (T), using the microscopic first-order perturbation hard sphere (HS) theory of liquid metals. PHP involves surface tension (S
    <sub>T</sub>) and isothermal compressibility (χ
    <sub>T</sub>) of the surface properties. On the other hand, TC properties such as shear viscosity (η) and diffusion (D) are investigated for the same footing. The effective hard-sphere diameter (σ), along with packing fraction (Ω), and the effective pair potential (V
    <sub>ij</sub>(r)) are the basic ingredients of the first-order perturbation microscopic theory in the present inquisition. To facilitate accurate computational analysis, these constituents are assessed utilizing a local pseudopotential and the linearized Weeks-Chandler-Andersen thermodynamic perturbation theory (LWCA). The calculated results, when juxtaposed with the existing experimental data and estimated theoretical values, indicate that the LWCA predicts a slight temperature-dependent divergence in the study of Al. The root cause of this deviation in the uncertainty level of the results for Al is examined, and possible reasons are explained.
   </abstract>
   <kwd-group> 
    <kwd>
     Surface Tension (S
     <sub>T</sub>)
    </kwd> 
    <kwd>
      Isothermal Compressibility (
     <sub>T</sub>)
    </kwd> 
    <kwd>
      Shear Viscosity (η)
    </kwd> 
    <kwd>
      Diffusion (D)
    </kwd> 
    <kwd>
      Bretonnet-Silbert Pseudopotential
    </kwd> 
    <kwd>
      LWCA Theory
    </kwd>
   </kwd-group>
  </article-meta>
 </front>
 <body>
  <sec id="s1">
   <title>1. Introduction</title>
   <p>Because of numerous uses of PHP (S<sub>T</sub>, χ<sub>T</sub>) and TC (η, D) in both industry and academia, S<sub>T</sub> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-1">
     [1]
    </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-6">
     [6]
    </xref>, χ<sub>T</sub> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-7">
     [7]
    </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-14">
     [14]
    </xref>, η <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-12">
     [12]
    </xref>, and D <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-13">
     [13]
    </xref> have drawn the attention of scientists, technologists, and metallurgists, respectively. S<sub>T</sub> markedly affects numerous processes, including the nucleation of gas bubbles, gas absorption, the creation of non-metallic inclusions, and metal reactions <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-1">
     [1]
    </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-6">
     [6]
    </xref>. Legionary physical features associated with χ<sub>T</sub> into material processing procedures, such as soldering, brazing, sintering, dyeing, and wetting, necessitate an understanding of surface physics for enhanced insight. Moreover, η and D can also have a significant effect in the process of binary solidification and in the regulation of the rate at which biological and new functionality of material growth procedures occur <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-12">
     [12]
    </xref> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-13">
     [13]
    </xref>. This suggests that structural and thermodynamic factors might significantly influence surface tension and, consequently, the atomic transport properties of liquid metals. For instance, shear viscosity and diffusion coefficients are two examples of features that can be affected by these processes. Consequently, examining the potential interconnection among the aforementioned traits presents a compelling challenge. Here, a theory that best explains the liquid structure and thermodynamics of the systems being studied is required.</p>
   <p>
    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-"></xref>The purpose of investigations of PHP and TC for different thermodynamic states T = 950, 1050, and 1150 K, respectively, is fourfold. First, even though Al is one of the most often utilized metals, little is known about the inherent usefulness of its S<sub>T</sub>. Keene <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-1">
     [1]
    </xref> investigation demonstrated that S<sub>T</sub> of Al at temperatures close to its melting point (943K) is between 850 - 1100 mN/m. This S<sub>T</sub> has been measured by different researchers using different methods. The source of this significant dispersion, markedly above the usual error of S<sub>T</sub> surface tension measurements (2% - 3%), is unequivocally the heightened sensitivity of the surface characteristics of molten aluminum to oxygen. In the literature review <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-1">
     [1]
    </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-6">
     [6]
    </xref>, two distinct groupings of S<sub>T</sub> values can be recognized. S<sub>T </sub>values ranging from 850 to 900 mN/m were found from meticulous tests conducted by multiple teams under diverse atmospheric conditions either the sessile drop technique or the maximum bubble pressure (MBP) approach. The temperature coefficient of S<sub>T</sub> (dS<sub>T</sub>/dT) in these studies was found to range from −0.10 to −0.20 mN m<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> K<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-1">
     [1]
    </xref>. Comparable values have recently been acquired via the contactless oscillating droplet tech0nique <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-2">
     [2]
    </xref>, and those were between 1030 and 1100 mN/m. Goumiri and Joud <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-3">
     [3]
    </xref> were the first to quantify a high S<sub>T</sub> value (1050 mN/m) with a sophisticated sessile drop experiment conducted within an Auger spectroscopy chamber following in situ cleaning of the aluminum surface. These authors assert that experimental results S<sub>T </sub>about 850 mN/m pertain to aluminum surfaces coated with a monolayer of adsorbed oxygen. Subsequently, a significant value of approximately 1090 mN/m was observed in MBP tests <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-4">
     [4]
    </xref> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-5">
     [5]
    </xref>. Recently, Sarou-Kanian et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-6">
     [6]
    </xref> determined 
    <math display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
      <msubsup> 
       <mi>
         S 
       </mi> 
       <mi>
         T 
       </mi> 
       <mrow> 
        <mi>
          m 
        </mi> 
        <mi>
          p 
        </mi> 
       </mrow> 
      </msubsup> 
     </mrow> 
    </math> = 1024 (±48) mN/m by extrapolating to the melting point of Al using a contactless approach at temperatures ranging from 1500˚C to 1900˚C in various neutral or reducing atmospheres. These analyses all indicated a conclusive point that the limitation of experimental facts. Second, only a small number of theoretical studies have been undertaken to examine S<sub>T</sub>, χ<sub>T</sub>, η, and D sequentially, utilizing the same ingredients from empirical or semi-empirical models <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-7">
     [7]
    </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-14">
     [14]
    </xref> for liquid Al, with only a handful achieving success. Furthermore, to our knowledge, liquid Al has not been investigated for its thermodynamic states at temperatures of 950, 1050, and 1150 K, utilizing the same parameters from the initial conditions to the end results in accordance with any microscopic theory for S<sub>T</sub>, χ<sub>T</sub>, η, and D, respectively. Third, the dynamic features of interest for theoretical investigation have already been evaluated by many experimentalists <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-1">
     [1]
    </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-6">
     [6]
    </xref>. Fourth, experimental results for static structure factors for elemental liquid Al are not available in the literature at the thermodynamic state in question <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-4">
     [4]
    </xref>. Therefore, the structural requirements are crucial for making accurate assumptions about liquid Al at those temperatures.</p>
   <p>At the same time, the literature review says that many studies have looked into the statistical mechanical theory and the S<sub>T</sub> of certain simple liquid metals, and these reviews have pointed out significant shortcomings. First, a specific study utilizes the approximate value <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-8">
     [8]
    </xref>. This value induces divergence if the potential possesses an extensive Friedel-type oscillatory tail. Avoiding this divergence is crucial for achieving the appropriate ST. It is necessary to truncate the integrand at a specific interionic distance to prevent the divergence of the Friedel-type oscillatory tail. Second, the measurement and calculation of S<sub>T</sub> using transport coefficients provide significant challenges from both experimental and theoretical viewpoints <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-9">
     [9]
    </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-14">
     [14]
    </xref>. Mayer’s empirical method <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-7">
     [7]
    </xref> was utilized to assess the temperature variation and S<sub>T</sub> of liquid Al. A first-order approximation of Percus-Yevick <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-15">
     [15]
    </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-21">
     [21]
    </xref> was then employed for the estimation of χ<sub>T</sub>. Sutherland’s [22], latterly development technique was applied for the estimation of the η, and D. σ and Ω were the key ingredients of this estimation. The electronic theory of metals employed in this work is based on a local pseudopotential proposed by Bretonnet and Silbert (BS) <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-21">
     [21]
    </xref>. The band structure energy calculated from the pseudopotential theory provides the interionic interaction, which in turn is used to calculate static structure factors as well as other physical properties investigated here. It is worth noting that the BS pseudopotential has three parameters (core radius, R<sub>c</sub>, softness parameters, a, and valency, Z) to be fixed to perform effective calculations. Here, values of R<sub>c</sub> a, and Z are taken from other published work <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-18">
     [18]
    </xref>. Once this is done, the rest of the calculation is completely parameter free. Moreover, the BS pseudopotential model has demonstrated efficacy in characterizing the structural <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-16">
     [16]
    </xref>, thermodynamics <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-17">
     [17]
    </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-19">
     [19]
    </xref>, and transport features <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-20">
     [20]
    </xref> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-21">
     [21]
    </xref> of less simple liquid metals and their alloys. Another important ingredient of the present microscopic approach is the partial correlation function, g<sub>ij</sub>(r), which describes the liquid structure of the constituent ions in the liquid state. In order to determine this function, we have employed the thermodynamic perturbation theory <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-23">
     [23]
    </xref> as simplified further by Meyer et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-7">
     [7]
    </xref>. The latter theory is known in literature as the Linearized Weeks-Chandler-Andersen (LWCA) theory <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-24">
     [24]
    </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-26">
     [26]
    </xref>.</p>
   <p>This paper follows a structured format. Section 2 provides a concise discussion that describes briefly relevant theories that are used in the calculations. The results of the calculation are presented and discussed in Section 3. We conclude this article with some remarks in Section 4.</p>
  </sec><sec id="s2">
   <title>2. Theory</title>
   <sec id="s2_1">
    <title>
     <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-"></xref>2.1. Eﬀective Partial Pair Potential</title>
    <p>The local pseudopotential for the i-th component of a metallic alloy may be modeled as a superposition of two terms, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-21">
      [21]
     </xref> one inside and another outside the core,</p>
    <p>
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              </mi> 
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               exp 
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                </mi> 
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                  </mi> 
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                ) 
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             </mo> 
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              </mi> 
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               </mi> 
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                 i 
               </mi> 
              </mrow> 
             </msub> 
            </mrow> 
           </mtd> 
          </mtr> 
          <mtr columnalign="left"> 
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            <mrow> 
             <mo>
               − 
             </mo> 
             <mfrac> 
              <mrow> 
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                <mi>
                  Z 
                </mi> 
                <mi>
                  i 
                </mi> 
               </msub> 
              </mrow> 
              <mi>
                r 
              </mi> 
             </mfrac> 
            </mrow> 
           </mtd> 
           <mtd columnalign="left"> 
            <mrow> 
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               if 
             </mtext> 
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             </mtext> 
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               r 
             </mi> 
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               &gt; 
             </mo> 
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                R 
              </mi> 
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               </mi> 
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            </mrow> 
           </mtd> 
          </mtr> 
         </mtable> 
        </mrow> 
       </mrow> 
      </mrow> 
     </math> (1)</p>
    <p>where a, R<sub>ci</sub> and Z denote the softness parameter, core radius and the effecttive s-electron occupancy number, respectively. The term outside the core is just the bare Coulomb interaction (in atomic units) between a conduction electron and an ion. The contribution inside the core is contributed by the ﬁrst two terms of the Dirichlet series arising from the inverse scattering approach. For details, see Ref <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-18">
      [18]
     </xref>. The coeﬃcients of expansion in the core depends on the parameters a<sub>i</sub>, R<sub>ci</sub>, and Z<sub>i</sub>. Finally, the partial interionic interaction between i-th and j-th ions is</p>
    <p>
     <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
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             ∫ 
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          ] 
        </mo> 
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     </math> (2)</p>
    <p>where the normalized energy wave number characteristics W<sub>i</sub>(q), in Equation (3), denotes the unscreened</p>
    <p>
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                </mo> 
                <mrow> 
                 <msub> 
                  <mi>
                    Z 
                  </mi> 
                  <mi>
                    i 
                  </mi> 
                 </msub> 
                 <msub> 
                  <mi>
                    Z 
                  </mi> 
                  <mi>
                    j 
                  </mi> 
                 </msub> 
                </mrow> 
                <mo>
                  ) 
                </mo> 
               </mrow> 
              </mrow> 
             </msqrt> 
            </mrow> 
           </mfrac> 
          </mrow> 
          <mo>
            ] 
          </mo> 
         </mrow> 
        </mrow> 
        <mn>
          2 
        </mn> 
       </msup> 
       <msub> 
        <mi>
          W 
        </mi> 
        <mi>
          i 
        </mi> 
       </msub> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          ( 
        </mo> 
        <mi>
          q 
        </mi> 
        <mo>
          ) 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
       <msub> 
        <mi>
          W 
        </mi> 
        <mi>
          j 
        </mi> 
       </msub> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          ( 
        </mo> 
        <mi>
          q 
        </mi> 
        <mo>
          ) 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          [ 
        </mo> 
        <mrow> 
         <mn>
           1 
         </mn> 
         <mo>
           − 
         </mo> 
         <mfrac> 
          <mn>
            1 
          </mn> 
          <mrow> 
           <mi>
             ε 
           </mi> 
           <mrow> 
            <mo>
              ( 
            </mo> 
            <mi>
              q 
            </mi> 
            <mo>
              ) 
            </mo> 
           </mrow> 
          </mrow> 
         </mfrac> 
        </mrow> 
        <mo>
          ] 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          [ 
        </mo> 
        <mrow> 
         <mfrac> 
          <mn>
            1 
          </mn> 
          <mrow> 
           <mn>
             1 
           </mn> 
           <mo>
             − 
           </mo> 
           <mi>
             G 
           </mi> 
           <mrow> 
            <mo>
              ( 
            </mo> 
            <mi>
              q 
            </mi> 
            <mo>
              ) 
            </mo> 
           </mrow> 
          </mrow> 
         </mfrac> 
        </mrow> 
        <mo>
          ] 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
      </mrow> 
     </math> (3)</p>
    <p>form factor of the i-th com ponent obtained from the Fourier transform of W<sub>i</sub>(r) (see Equation (9)), ε(q) and G(q) are dielectric function and the local ﬁeld factor in momentum space, respectively, with q as the amount of momentum transferred. These functions are taken from Ichimaru and Utsumi <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-27">
      [27]
     </xref> because their theory satisﬁes both the compressibility sum rule and the short-range correlation condition.</p>
   </sec>
   <sec id="s2_2">
    <title>2.2. LWCA Theory</title>
    <p>The LWCA technique <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-24">
      [24]
     </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-26">
      [26]
     </xref> was utilized in this work to calculate HSD Because it is an easily understood and theoretically accessible theory. It is well known that the first principles perturbation theory requires such a reference system which can closely resemble the concerned real system <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-28">
      [28]
     </xref>. There are many experimental as well as theoretical evidence that the HS theory of liquid can describe the structure of simple and transition metals <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-29">
      [29]
     </xref> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-30">
      [30]
     </xref> and their binary alloys <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-15">
      [15]
     </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-19">
      [19]
     </xref>. Being prompted by the above history of success we employ HS reference system for liquid Al within the LWCA thermodynamic perturbation theory proposed by Meyer et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-7">
      [7]
     </xref> was derived from the WCA theory <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-25">
      [25]
     </xref>. The Blip function in the theory stands as,</p>
    <p>
     <math display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
       <mi>
         B 
       </mi> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          ( 
        </mo> 
        <mi>
          r 
        </mi> 
        <mo>
          ) 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
       <mo>
         = 
       </mo> 
       <msub> 
        <mi>
          Y 
        </mi> 
        <mi>
          σ 
        </mi> 
       </msub> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          ( 
        </mo> 
        <mi>
          r 
        </mi> 
        <mo>
          ) 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          [ 
        </mo> 
        <mrow> 
         <mi>
           exp 
         </mi> 
         <mrow> 
          <mo>
            [ 
          </mo> 
          <mrow> 
           <mo>
             − 
           </mo> 
           <mi>
             β 
           </mi> 
           <mi>
             v 
           </mi> 
           <mrow> 
            <mo>
              ( 
            </mo> 
            <mi>
              r 
            </mi> 
            <mo>
              ) 
            </mo> 
           </mrow> 
          </mrow> 
          <mo>
            ] 
          </mo> 
         </mrow> 
         <mo>
           − 
         </mo> 
         <mtext>
           exp 
         </mtext> 
         <mrow> 
          <mo>
            [ 
          </mo> 
          <mrow> 
           <mi>
             β 
           </mi> 
           <msub> 
            <mi>
              v 
            </mi> 
            <mi>
              σ 
            </mi> 
           </msub> 
           <mrow> 
            <mo>
              ( 
            </mo> 
            <mi>
              r 
            </mi> 
            <mo>
              ) 
            </mo> 
           </mrow> 
          </mrow> 
          <mo>
            ] 
          </mo> 
         </mrow> 
        </mrow> 
        <mo>
          ] 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
       <mo>
         . 
       </mo> 
      </mrow> 
     </math> (4)</p>
    <p>Here 
     <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
       <mi>
         v 
       </mi> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          ( 
        </mo> 
        <mi>
          r 
        </mi> 
        <mo>
          ) 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
      </mrow> 
     </math>, and 
     <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
       <msub> 
        <mi>
          v 
        </mi> 
        <mi>
          σ 
        </mi> 
       </msub> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          ( 
        </mo> 
        <mi>
          r 
        </mi> 
        <mo>
          ) 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
      </mrow> 
     </math> Here, 
     <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
       <mi>
         v 
       </mi> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          ( 
        </mo> 
        <mi>
          r 
        </mi> 
        <mo>
          ) 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
      </mrow> 
     </math> and 
     <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
       <mi>
         v 
       </mi> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          ( 
        </mo> 
        <mi>
          r 
        </mi> 
        <mo>
          ) 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
      </mrow> 
     </math> denote soft and hard sphere, HS potentials, respectively. 
     <math display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mi>
        β 
      </mi> 
     </math> is the inverse temperature divided by the Boltzmann constant and 
     <math display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
       <msub> 
        <mi>
          Y 
        </mi> 
        <mi>
          σ 
        </mi> 
       </msub> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          ( 
        </mo> 
        <mi>
          r 
        </mi> 
        <mo>
          ) 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
      </mrow> 
     </math> is the hard sphere cavity function and it is continuous at r = σ; σ being the effective HSD. In the linearized version of the WCA, σ is obtained from the solution of the transcendental equation <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-31">
      [31]
     </xref>. Our previous work <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-18">
      [18]
     </xref> mentions the solution to this equation.</p>
   </sec>
   <sec id="s2_3">
    <title>2.3. Pair Distribution Function</title>
    <p>In order to have numerical values for partial correlation function, we first calculating the Ashcroft-Langreth (AL) partial static structure factors, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-32">
      [32]
     </xref> S<sub>ij</sub>(q), and then take a Fourier trans- form of it,</p>
    <p>
     <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
       <msub> 
        <mi>
          g 
        </mi> 
        <mrow> 
         <mi>
           i 
         </mi> 
         <mi>
           j 
         </mi> 
        </mrow> 
       </msub> 
       <mrow> 
        <mo>
          ( 
        </mo> 
        <mi>
          r 
        </mi> 
        <mo>
          ) 
        </mo> 
       </mrow> 
       <mo>
         = 
       </mo> 
       <mn>
         1 
       </mn> 
       <mo>
         − 
       </mo> 
       <mo>
         + 
       </mo> 
       <mfrac> 
        <mn>
          1 
        </mn> 
        <mrow> 
         <msup> 
          <mrow> 
           <mrow> 
            <mo>
              ( 
            </mo> 
            <mrow> 
             <mn>
               2 
             </mn> 
             <mi>
               π 
             </mi> 
            </mrow> 
            <mo>
              ) 
            </mo> 
           </mrow> 
          </mrow> 
          <mn>
            3 
          </mn> 
         </msup> 
         <mi>
           ρ 
         </mi> 
         <msqrt> 
          <mrow> 
           <mi>
             x 
           </mi> 
           <mrow> 
            <mo>
              ( 
            </mo> 
            <mrow> 
             <mn>
               1 
             </mn> 
             <mo>
               − 
             </mo> 
             <mi>
               x 
             </mi> 
            </mrow> 
            <mo>
              ) 
            </mo> 
           </mrow> 
          </mrow> 
         </msqrt> 
        </mrow> 
       </mfrac> 
       <mstyle displaystyle="true"> 
        <mrow> 
         <msubsup> 
          <mo>
            ∫ 
          </mo> 
          <mn>
            0 
          </mn> 
          <mi>
            ∞ 
          </mi> 
         </msubsup> 
         <mrow> 
          <mrow> 
           <mo>
             ( 
           </mo> 
           <mrow> 
            <msub> 
             <mi>
               S 
             </mi> 
             <mrow> 
              <mi>
                i 
              </mi> 
              <mi>
                j 
              </mi> 
             </mrow> 
            </msub> 
            <mrow> 
             <mo>
               ( 
             </mo> 
             <mi>
               q 
             </mi> 
             <mo>
               ) 
             </mo> 
            </mrow> 
            <mo>
              − 
            </mo> 
            <msub> 
             <mi>
               δ 
             </mi> 
             <mrow> 
              <mi>
                i 
              </mi> 
              <mi>
                j 
              </mi> 
             </mrow> 
            </msub> 
           </mrow> 
           <mo>
             ) 
           </mo> 
          </mrow> 
          <msup> 
           <mtext>
             e 
           </mtext> 
           <mrow> 
            <mi>
              i 
            </mi> 
            <mi>
              q 
            </mi> 
            <mo>
              ⋅ 
            </mo> 
            <mi>
              r 
            </mi> 
           </mrow> 
          </msup> 
          <msup> 
           <mtext>
             d 
           </mtext> 
           <mn>
             3 
           </mn> 
          </msup> 
          <mi>
            q 
          </mi> 
         </mrow> 
        </mrow> 
       </mstyle> 
      </mrow> 
     </math>, (5)</p>
    <p>
     <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-"></xref>where ρ is the ionic density of alloys. We note that calculation of S<sub>ij</sub>(q) requires the knowledge of the effective hard sphere diameters, σ<sub>ij</sub>, which is obtained by using the linearized WCA thermodynamic perturbation theory <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-33">
      [33]
     </xref>.</p>
   </sec>
   <sec id="s2_4">
    <title>2.4. Surface Tension (S<sub>T</sub>), Isothermal Compressibility (χ<sub>T</sub>), Shear Viscosity (η) and Diffusion (D)</title>
    <p>Liquid metals have a higher density than other common liquids. As a result, clarifying liquid metals requires sophisticated concepts. The idea of repulsive intermolecular forces determines the structure of liquid metals has given rise to various ideas <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-34">
      [34]
     </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-37">
      [37]
     </xref>. Molecular configuration governs intermolecular interactions. A hard-sphere potential is typically, entirely repulsive. Therefore, when modeling the interactions in real liquid systems using a rigid sphere potential, one should only reproduce the repulsive part of the potential <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-34">
      [34]
     </xref>. As an alternative to the integral equation approach, a rational function approximation can be used to express the S<sub>T</sub> equation obtained from the first-order approximation of the Percus-Yevick solution as follows:</p>
    <p>
     <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
       <mi>
         γ 
       </mi> 
       <mo>
         = 
       </mo> 
       <mfrac> 
        <mrow> 
         <mi>
           δ 
         </mi> 
         <mi>
           η 
         </mi> 
         <msub> 
          <mi>
            k 
          </mi> 
          <mi>
            B 
          </mi> 
         </msub> 
         <mi>
           T 
         </mi> 
         <mrow> 
          <mo>
            ( 
          </mo> 
          <mrow> 
           <mn>
             2 
           </mn> 
           <mo>
             + 
           </mo> 
           <mi>
             Ω 
           </mi> 
          </mrow> 
          <mo>
            ) 
          </mo> 
         </mrow> 
        </mrow> 
        <mrow> 
         <mn>
           4 
         </mn> 
         <msup> 
          <mrow> 
           <mrow> 
            <mo>
              ( 
            </mo> 
            <mrow> 
             <mn>
               1 
             </mn> 
             <mo>
               − 
             </mo> 
             <mi>
               Ω 
             </mi> 
            </mrow> 
            <mo>
              ) 
            </mo> 
           </mrow> 
          </mrow> 
          <mn>
            2 
          </mn> 
         </msup> 
        </mrow> 
       </mfrac> 
      </mrow> 
     </math> (6)</p>
    <p>This study employs Equations (6) to compute the S<sub>T</sub> of the relevant system. In order to estimate the isothermal compressibility (χ<sub>T</sub>), the first-order approximation of the Carnahan and Stirling <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-38">
      [38]
     </xref> solution has been used, taking into account the rational function approximation. This approximation can also be adjusted as an alternative to the integral equation method for hard sphere fluid. The mathematical equation is presented below:</p>
    <p>
     <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
       <msub> 
        <mi>
          χ 
        </mi> 
        <mi>
          T 
        </mi> 
       </msub> 
       <mo>
         = 
       </mo> 
       <mfrac> 
        <mrow> 
         <msup> 
          <mrow> 
           <mrow> 
            <mo>
              ( 
            </mo> 
            <mrow> 
             <mn>
               1 
             </mn> 
             <mo>
               − 
             </mo> 
             <mi>
               Ω 
             </mi> 
            </mrow> 
            <mo>
              ) 
            </mo> 
           </mrow> 
          </mrow> 
          <mn>
            4 
          </mn> 
         </msup> 
        </mrow> 
        <mrow> 
         <mi>
           ρ 
         </mi> 
         <msub> 
          <mi>
            k 
          </mi> 
          <mi>
            B 
          </mi> 
         </msub> 
         <mi>
           T 
         </mi> 
         <mrow> 
          <mo>
            { 
          </mo> 
          <mrow> 
           <mn>
             2 
           </mn> 
           <mi>
             Ω 
           </mi> 
           <mrow> 
            <mo>
              ( 
            </mo> 
            <mrow> 
             <mn>
               4 
             </mn> 
             <mo>
               − 
             </mo> 
             <mi>
               Ω 
             </mi> 
            </mrow> 
            <mo>
              ) 
            </mo> 
           </mrow> 
           <mo>
             + 
           </mo> 
           <msup> 
            <mrow> 
             <mrow> 
              <mo>
                ( 
              </mo> 
              <mrow> 
               <mn>
                 1 
               </mn> 
               <mo>
                 − 
               </mo> 
               <mi>
                 Ω 
               </mi> 
              </mrow> 
              <mo>
                ) 
              </mo> 
             </mrow> 
            </mrow> 
            <mn>
              4 
            </mn> 
           </msup> 
          </mrow> 
          <mo>
            } 
          </mo> 
         </mrow> 
        </mrow> 
       </mfrac> 
      </mrow> 
     </math> (7)</p>
    <p>where ρ is the ionic number density, k<sub>B</sub> is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature. Furthermore, equations (8) and (9) have been utilized to get the transport coefficients η and D. Equation (8) has been examined within the context of the assumptions stated by Born and Green <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-14">
      [14]
     </xref>. Conversely, equation (9) was also formulated by Sutherland <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-22">
      [22]
     </xref> et al. from the original Stokes-Einstein equation utilizing hydrodynamic theory, as detailed in the following two equations:</p>
    <p>
     <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-"></xref> 
     <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
       <mi>
         η 
       </mi> 
       <mo>
         = 
       </mo> 
       <mfrac> 
        <mrow> 
         <mn>
           16 
         </mn> 
         <msup> 
          <mi>
            m 
          </mi> 
          <mrow> 
           <mfrac> 
            <mn>
              1 
            </mn> 
            <mn>
              2 
            </mn> 
           </mfrac> 
          </mrow> 
         </msup> 
        </mrow> 
        <mrow> 
         <mn>
           15 
         </mn> 
         <msup> 
          <mrow> 
           <mrow> 
            <mo>
              ( 
            </mo> 
            <mrow> 
             <msub> 
              <mi>
                k 
              </mi> 
              <mi>
                B 
              </mi> 
             </msub> 
             <mi>
               T 
             </mi> 
            </mrow> 
            <mo>
              ) 
            </mo> 
           </mrow> 
          </mrow> 
          <mrow> 
           <mfrac> 
            <mn>
              1 
            </mn> 
            <mn>
              2 
            </mn> 
           </mfrac> 
          </mrow> 
         </msup> 
        </mrow> 
       </mfrac> 
       <msub> 
        <mi>
          S 
        </mi> 
        <mi>
          T 
        </mi> 
       </msub> 
       <mo>
         , 
       </mo> 
      </mrow> 
     </math> (8)</p>
    <p>and,</p>
    <p>
     <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow> 
       <mi>
         D 
       </mi> 
       <mo>
         = 
       </mo> 
       <mfrac> 
        <mrow> 
         <mn>
           15 
         </mn> 
         <msub> 
          <mi>
            k 
          </mi> 
          <mi>
            B 
          </mi> 
         </msub> 
         <mi>
           T 
         </mi> 
        </mrow> 
        <mrow> 
         <mn>
           32 
         </mn> 
         <mi>
           π 
         </mi> 
         <mi>
           σ 
         </mi> 
         <msub> 
          <mi>
            S 
          </mi> 
          <mi>
            T 
          </mi> 
         </msub> 
         <mi>
           m 
         </mi> 
        </mrow> 
       </mfrac> 
       <mfrac> 
        <mrow> 
         <msup> 
          <mrow> 
           <mrow> 
            <mo>
              ( 
            </mo> 
            <mrow> 
             <msub> 
              <mi>
                k 
              </mi> 
              <mi>
                B 
              </mi> 
             </msub> 
             <mi>
               T 
             </mi> 
            </mrow> 
            <mo>
              ) 
            </mo> 
           </mrow> 
          </mrow> 
          <mrow> 
           <mrow> 
            <mn>
              1 
            </mn> 
            <mo>
              / 
            </mo> 
            <mn>
              2 
            </mn> 
           </mrow> 
          </mrow> 
         </msup> 
        </mrow> 
        <mrow> 
         <msup> 
          <mi>
            m 
          </mi> 
          <mrow> 
           <mrow> 
            <mn>
              1 
            </mn> 
            <mo>
              / 
            </mo> 
            <mn>
              2 
            </mn> 
           </mrow> 
          </mrow> 
         </msup> 
        </mrow> 
       </mfrac> 
       <mo>
         . 
       </mo> 
      </mrow> 
     </math> (9)</p>
    <p>where, m is the atomic mass of the liquid atoms.</p>
   </sec>
  </sec><sec id="s3">
   <title>3. Results and Discussion</title>
   <p>In this section, we have presented the results of calculations for the S<sub>T</sub>, χ<sub>T</sub>, η, and D of the simple liquid Al metal at temperatures of 950 K, 1050 K, and 1150 K, respectively. The reason for choosing this liquid system due to its generally accepted lack of sd hybridization effects <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-37">
     [37]
    </xref>. Besides, Al is a heavy polyvalent metal, and are sometimes difficult to handle theoretically, in the framework of empirical or semi empirical models. So, we have employed the microscopic self-consistent theory within the conjunction of pseudopotential as BS model potential to describe the interionic interaction of the Al simple metal for revealing the liquid state features with temperature variation effect. Three parameters of the BS model are the core radius, R<sub>c</sub>, the softness parameter, a, and the valence Z. The value of R<sub>c</sub> is generally fixed by fitting physical properties of the concerned systems <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-39">
     [39]
    </xref>. We have taken the values of R<sub>c</sub> for Al from Ref <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-18">
     [18]
    </xref> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-37">
     [37]
    </xref>. The value for this is 1.91 au. Furthermore, at a core radius of R<sub>c</sub>=1.91 au, e pair potential absence a local minimum; instead, it exhibits a principal minimum succeeded by Friedel oscillations <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-20">
     [20]
    </xref>. This investigation was undertaken in order to avoid the local minimum</p>
   <table-wrap id="table1">
    <label>
     <xref ref-type="table" rid="table1">
      Table 1
     </xref></label>
    <caption>
     <title>
      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-"></xref>Table 1. Input parameters and calculated results.</title>
    </caption>
    <table class="MsoTableGrid custom-table" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> 
     <tr> 
      <td class="custom-bottom-td acenter" width="11.42%"><p style="text-align:center">Temperature, T (K)</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-bottom-td acenter" width="13.65%"><p style="text-align:center">Ionic number Density, ρ (Å<sup>-3</sup>)</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-bottom-td acenter" width="18.45%"><p style="text-align:center">Hard sphere diameter, </p><p style="text-align:center">σ (Å)</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-bottom-td acenter" width="10.17%"><p style="text-align:center">Packing </p><p style="text-align:center">fraction, Ω</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-bottom-td acenter" width="13.06%"><p style="text-align:center">Potential</p><p style="text-align:center">minimum (eV)</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-bottom-td acenter" width="7.26%"><p style="text-align:center">Valency, Z<sub>s</sub></p></td> 
      <td class="custom-bottom-td acenter" width="10.31%"><p style="text-align:center">Core radius,</p><p style="text-align:center">R<sub>c</sub> (a.u.)</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-bottom-td acenter" width="15.68%"><p style="text-align:center">Softness parameter, a (a.u.)</p></td> 
     </tr> 
     <tr> 
      <td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.42%"><p style="text-align:center">950</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="13.65%"><p style="text-align:center">5.314</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="18.45%"><p style="text-align:center">2.80545</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="10.17%"><p style="text-align:center">0.61437</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="13.06%"><p style="text-align:center">−0.0011</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="7.26%"><p style="text-align:center">3</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="10.31%"><p style="text-align:center">1.91</p></td> 
      <td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="15.68%"><p style="text-align:center">0.49</p></td> 
     </tr> 
     <tr> 
      <td class="acenter" width="11.42%"><p style="text-align:center">1050</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="13.65%"><p style="text-align:center">5.251</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="18.45%"><p style="text-align:center">2.80245</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="10.17%"><p style="text-align:center">0.60514</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="13.06%"><p style="text-align:center">−0.00127</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="7.26%"><p style="text-align:center">3</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="10.31%"><p style="text-align:center">1.91</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="15.68%"><p style="text-align:center">0.49</p></td> 
     </tr> 
     <tr> 
      <td class="acenter" width="11.42%"><p style="text-align:center">1150</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="13.65%"><p style="text-align:center">5.189</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="18.45%"><p style="text-align:center">2.80954</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="10.17%"><p style="text-align:center">0.60255</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="13.06%"><p style="text-align:center">−0.0014</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="7.26%"><p style="text-align:center">3</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="10.31%"><p style="text-align:center">1.91</p></td> 
      <td class="acenter" width="15.68%"><p style="text-align:center">0.49</p></td> 
     </tr> 
    </table>
   </table-wrap>
   <p>effect of this R<sub>c</sub>, which generates the effective potential pattern near −0.0011 eV. The softness parameter ‘a’ is determined by the best fitting of the LWCA structure factor to the experimental ones. The values of ‘a’ thus found for Al 0.49 au, respectively which is taken from our previous work <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-18">
     [18]
    </xref> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-37">
     [37]
    </xref>. Regarding the third parameter called effective s-electron occupancy number, Z<sub>s</sub>, we took the chemical valence 3 for Al. We note here that, the dielectric function plays an important role in determining the effective potential profile <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-20">
     [20]
    </xref>. In this work we have used the dielectric function proposed by Icimaru and Utsumi <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-27">
     [27]
    </xref>, because of their theory satisfies the compressibility sum rule and the short-range correlation conditions for the wide range of metallic density as well avoid the local minimum.</p>
   <fig id="fig1" position="float">
    <label>Figure 1</label>
    <caption>
     <title>Figure 1. Pair potential profile for liquid Al at (a) 950 K, (b) 1050 K, and (c) 1150 K, respectively.</title>
    </caption>
    <graphic mimetype="image" position="float" xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="https://html.scirp.org/file/1741418-rId45.jpeg?20250815013907" />
   </fig>
   <p>For calculating S<sub>T </sub>and χ<sub>T</sub>, we have used the relation in equations (6), and (7), sequential order. On the other hand, equation (8), and (9) employed for the estimation of η, and D. The major ingredients of the study of all the equations required are the packing fraction, Ω, and the temperature dependent effective HS diameter, σ(T). We have ascertained them utilizing BS pseudopotential adjacent to LWCA perturbation theory.</p>
   <p>
    <xref ref-type="table" rid="table1">
     Table 1
    </xref> enumerates the input values that were subsequently obtained. We have applied to the LWCA theories of liquid structures to achieve them. The σ(T) from LWCA is smaller than the one from an earlier study <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-18">
     [18]
    </xref> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-37">
     [37]
    </xref> on Al-based alloys at a low temperature (973 K), because the σ(T) in LWCA shows how far the origin is from the point where g(r) starts to be greater than zero. The graphical solution of the transcendental equation of equations used to estimate S<sub>T </sub>is utilized to estimate σ(T) for LWCA theory. Ω is then calculated from the relation, Ω = πσ<sup>3</sup>n/6 <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-32">
     [32]
    </xref>. Using these estimated values, the effective interionic interaction, V(r), for the systems under consideration are calculated and shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1(a-c)">
     Figure 1(a-c)
    </xref>. According to the potential profile shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1">
     Figure 1
    </xref>, the potential well’s depth reaches its maximum at T = 1150 K. However, at 950 K, we have seen that the distance to the initial minimum reaches its lowest values. The depth of the well is determined by a subtle combined effect of the ionic density and the value of the valence of the metal. Besides, both repulsive and attractive forces must be exquisitely balanced to determine the potential well’s depth. As a result, the potential well’s depth varies from one metal to another and also showed a strong correlation</p>
   <fig id="fig2" position="float">
    <label>Figure 2</label>
    <caption>
     <title>Figure 2. Partial pair correlation function for liquid Al at (a) 950 K, (b) 1050 K, and (c) 1150 K, respectively.</title>
    </caption>
    <graphic mimetype="image" position="float" xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="https://html.scirp.org/file/1741418-rId46.jpeg?20250815013908" />
   </fig>
   <p>with varying parameters. A key factor in defining repulsive and attractive contributions to the interionic effective pair potential is the softness parameter, a. Moreover, in the present study consideration has been taken to avoid the local minima effect in the calculation to the principal minimum succeeded by Friedel oscillations. Perhaps this may be the reason for the potential well depth in the order of 10<sup>−4 </sup>(−0.0011eV). It is worth noting here that, the BS-model uses the empty core potential outside the core.</p>
   <p>As can be seen in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig2(a)-(c)">
     Figure 2(a)-(c)
    </xref>, temperature has an effect on pair correlation function. In this work, the pair correlation function, denoted by g(r), of liquid aluminum is demonstrated at various temperatures. Besides we can see from <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig2(a)-(b)">
     Figure 2(a)-(b)
    </xref>, the height of the major peak reduces slightly as the temperature rises, while the peak position stays virtually the same. This observation has been noted previously <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-19">
     [19]
    </xref> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-20">
     [20]
    </xref>. We found here that general agreement among g(r) for temperature fluctuations were better than the results obtained by previous researchers Bhuiyan et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-19">
     [19]
    </xref>.</p>
   <p>Three possible manifestations of this divergence from the assessed results may arise. First, perhaps the underlying reason is that the BS potential has both an attraction and a repulsion component, LWCA theory only considers the repulsive portion of the potential profile derived from the BS pseudopotential. Overcoming</p>
   <fig id="fig3" position="float">
    <label>Figure 3</label>
    <caption>
     <title>Figure 3. (a) Temperature dependence of Surface tension, S<sub>T</sub> is plotted as a function of temperature for liquid Al. Square black color present the experimental results <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-1">
       [1]
      </xref>, and red circles present the calculated results for this study. Other calculated results are plotted in (b) isothermal compressibility (χ<sub>T</sub>) <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-36">
       [36]
      </xref>, (c) shear viscosity (η) <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-41">
       [41]
      </xref>, and (d) diffusion coefficient (D) <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-42">
       [42]
      </xref> for liquid Al. η and D compare with their melting temperature data.</title>
    </caption>
    <graphic mimetype="image" position="float" xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="https://html.scirp.org/file/1741418-rId47.jpeg?20250815013907" />
   </fig>
   <p>the attractive part of the calculation could be the cause of this slight variation in the surface tension results. Second, the local field modifications suggested by Vashishta and Singwi (VS) <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-39">
     [39]
    </xref> in the BS pseudopotential are crucial for obtaining an accurate assessment of the potential profile as illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1(a)-(c)">
     Figure 1(a)-(c)
    </xref>. It (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1(a)-(c)">
     Figure 1(a)-(c)
    </xref>) reveals that the potential depth increases and the first minimum shifts marginally to the right, which correlates with the significance of local field correction in the pseudopotential analysis. So, the field correction is essential for authentic estimation. Third, there is a possibility bridization effect of liquid Al may occur, as demonstrated in Al cluster formation <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-43">
     [43]
    </xref> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-44">
     [44]
    </xref>. In the literature <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-43">
     [43]
    </xref> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-44">
     [44]
    </xref>, it is mentioned that Al has hybridization effect as exhibited in Al Cluster. In addition, this study has been conducted the microstructural properties without considering the hybridization effect. Perhaps, if the hybridization effect may consider then there is a possibility to reduce the discrepancy between the present study and the experimental results.</p>
   <p>The calculated values for physicochemical (S<sub>T</sub>, χ<sub>T</sub>,) and transport coefficients (η, D) are presented in this study. These properties are found to be deviated for the polyvalent liquid Al metallic element. A possible correlation between the hybridization effect and liquid Al was primarily confirmed <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-43">
     [43]
    </xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.144812-45">
     [45]
    </xref>. Moreover, a strong connection shows the necessity of local field correlation in the pseudopotential application, which is significant for accurate estimation.</p>
  </sec><sec id="s4">
   <title>4. Conclusion</title>
   <p>The findings of the S<sub>T</sub>, χ<sub>T</sub>, η, and D calculation for liquid aluminum are presented in this article. The temperature changes of the hard sphere diameter were assessed using the LWCA theory within the BS pseudopotential. Mayer’s method has been utilized to calculate S<sub>T</sub> for the liquid Al system across multiple temperature ranges. Carnahan and Stirling first order approximation was utilized for the mechanical profile evaluation as well χ<sub>T</sub>. Sutherland et al. modification of the original Stokes-Einstein equation was employed for the estimation of η, and D. The result analysis suggested that the structure involving the full potential profile is significant for accurate numerical calculations. Moreover, a possible hybridization effect may also exist for the formation of the liquid Al structure. Further study is also needed to reveal the microstructural phenomenon of liquid Al.</p>
  </sec><sec id="s5">
   <title>Acknowledgements</title>
   <p>The author expresses his sincere appreciation to Prof. Dr. Abdur Razzaque Khan (Faculty of Social Science, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh), M.M. Rahman, BCS EDUCATION CADER (34<sup>th</sup>) and material science researcher for giving fruitful suggestions, and the study environment to finish this project.</p>
  </sec><sec id="s6">
   <title>Author Contributions</title>
   <p>FIA: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing-original draft, Plotting figures, Methodology, Software, review &amp; editing, Supervision; S.C: Writing-Original, review &amp; editing.</p>
  </sec><sec id="s7">
   <title>Data Availability</title>
   <p>The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings can be shared upon depending on request.</p>
  </sec>
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