Despite its relatively small area, Palestine (27,000 km²) is home to a large and important diversity of bird species, perhaps exceeding 551 species [1] . Despite the multiplicity of studies concerned with birds and their monitoring in the Palestinian territories that Israel has occupied for decades, studies related to the birds of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque and its beautiful courtyards seem very rare and perhaps do not exist. In both the Gaza Strip (365 km²) and the West Bank (5640 km²) of Palestine, numerous bird surveys have been conducted in natural and urban ecosystems. These surveys have, in total, revealed the presence of hundreds of species of resident and migratory birds, both terrestrial and aquatic [2] - [12] . Moreover, in areas rich in water bodies such as ponds and wadis in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, many studies revealed the occurrence of a considerable number of water bird species [13] - [16] . In fact, birds are among the most prominent wild vertebrates in Palestine, and this is naturally evident in the preservation of some of their species, alive or stuffed, in zoos and biological museums in the Palestinian territories [17] - [19] .

The blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque, with its spacious, beautiful courtyards adorned with trees, shrubs, grasses, domes, and buildings [20] , is located on a hill in the heart of Palestine. Palestinians travel daily to pray and worship at the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque, especially during the holy month of Ramadan ( Figure 1 ). Worshipers wander through the courtyards of the Mosque, carrying their children, belongings, and food, enjoying the shade of its large perennial trees and shrubs, enjoying the sight of a variety of birds, both singing and non-singing, that add natural beauty to the beauty of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque, which every Muslim in the world aspires to visit, pray, and worship in.

A recent study [20] showed that the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque include 30 species of perennial trees and shrubs, distributed between the fruitful and non-fruitful, native and exotic. In general, plant species provide great services for birds such as shelter, shadow, feeding, mimicry, protection, resting, nesting and reproduction, as many Palestinian studies indicated [15] [21] - [27] . Birds have not been sufficiently studied or surveyed in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque in Al-Quds (Jerusalem), Palestine. This mosque is of great importance to Palestinians, Arabs and Muslims from religious, spiritual, historical and cultural aspects, although it has been languishing, like the Palestinian territories, for a long time under the brutal Israeli occupation. Hence, the current study aims to conduct a survey of the bird species adorning the courtyard of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque in Al-Quds (Jerusalem), Palestine. The importance of the current work comes from the fact that it seems to be the first in dealing with bird fauna in this specific spot of the world.

Palestine (27,000 km²) is characterized by a high diversity of wild vertebrates, encompassing diverse ecosystems and habitats extending from north to south and from east to west. The 551 bird species identified by Meiri et al. [1] demonstrate that birds are the most prominent vertebrates in Palestine, supported by migratory birds that follow multiple routes during their spring and autumn migrations [45] [46] . The current study estimates the presence of 78 bird species in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque, but this preliminary list is not intended to be static and will surely need to be updated at some point, especially since the interest in birds of the Palestinian territories has recently started during the last twenty years after the number of studies related to bird surveys increased, and so did the number of hobbyists competing in documenting the birds that reside in the region or visit it from time to time (Personal Communications). Despite its very limited area of 144,000 square meters (144 dunums), the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque and its spacious courtyards are home to many important birds, numbering at least 78 species. This represents 14.2% of the total bird species in Palestine, which, according to Meiri et al. [1] , amounts to 551 birds, including resident, migratory, terrestrial, and aquatic birds.

Being a scavenging bird [47] [48] , the Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis Linnaeus, 1758) is usually seen in small groups hovering over the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque, or roaming the yards near cultivated areas, searching for and feeding on terrestrial invertebrates that might harm plants [49] . Therefore, Palestinian farmers throughout Palestine consider it a friend of the farmer [10] . This bird is very common in local wastewater treatment plants and municipal solid waste landfills due to its scavenging feeding [50] . Although the White-breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis Linnaeus, 1758) is considered an aquatic bird, it is also common in terrestrial habitats, which is why sightings of it are common in the study area. It is often identified by its beautiful colors and distinctive call during flight.

The White Stork (Ciconia ciconia Linnaeus, 1758) and the Black Stork (Ciconia nigra Linnaeus, 1758) are large birds in the stork family, Ciconiidae. They are shy-looking birds, and are easily recognized by their beautiful colors. The plumage of the adult White Stork is mostly white, with black feathers on the wings. The latter has mostly black plumage with white underparts. Both have long red legs and a long, pointed red beak [43] [44] . Black and White Storks are migratory birds in the eastern Mediterranean region [51] , including Palestine, sometimes seen in the skies over the Blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque and Jerusalem. The White Stork is more common, while the Black Stork is rarer but still visible. The Common Crane (Grus grus Linnaeus, 1758), some of whose flocks are sometimes seen above the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque, is considered an aquatic bird, or rather a wading bird, because it prefers moist habitats and searches for its food in shallow water [52] [53] . It is a common winter visitor and passage migrant in Palestine [11] .

In contrast, terrestrial birds were the dominant form in the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque courtyards, due to the nature of the area, its buildings, and its vegetation, which includes trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, all of which provide valuable services to birds. The study results showed that 57.7% of the birds in the Al-Aqsa Mosque courtyards belong to the passerines or songbirds. Most of these species depend on the vegetation cover for their biological and ecological survival. Therefore, the sounds of these birds attract the ears of worshippers and visitors, who enjoy their beautiful melodies and enchanting shapes. Similarly, Abd Rabou [15] [26] found that the Passeriformes order was the largest, representing 62.5% of the bird species recorded on the main campus of the Islamic University of Gaza, Gaza Strip. This campus is rich in native and exotic plant species that attract a diverse array of birds [26] .

Within the passerine group, the Muscicapidae, Sylviidae, and Fringillidae families are the largest in terms of number of species. This is expected in urban ecosystems containing trees, shrubs, and buildings on which these birds depend for their livelihood. Abd Rabou [15] [26] reported somewhat similar results where Muscicapidae, Fringillidae, and Laniidae were the largest passerine families on the main campus of the Islamic University of Gaza, Gaza Strip. In fact, these birds are characterized by their small size and often need concealment and protection. They feed mainly on invertebrates or plant materials found in the environment of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque. Not only the aforementioned families, but most passerine families find in the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque and its botanical features a safe haven that provides them with the food, rest, breeding, nesting, protection, and shelter they need from enemies.

The Palestine Sunbird (Cinnyris osea) is the only nectarivorous (nectar-feeding) bird in the eastern Mediterranean [54] and the only endemic species in Palestine, living in various natural, rural, and urban environments rich in flowering plants [15] [26] [40] . Although the bird is commonly seen sucking nectar from the flowers of many plants scattered throughout the Al-Aqsa Mosque courtyards, the Tree Tobacco (Nicotiana glauca Graham), an invasive species in Palestine, is a major food source for this species in various environments in the eastern Mediterranean [54] [55] . Many sunbirds (Nectariniidae) are among the passerine birds involved in dispersing plant seeds (pollination), as shown by Corlett [56] .

The swift is a common bird, frequently seen in the skies above the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque and its courtyards. It is distinguished by its exceptional flying ability and is considered one of the fastest birds in flat flight. Its wings are curved and its tail is forked. The general appearance of swifts resembles that of swallows and the martins, which have also been recorded in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque. All of these creatures are small, graceful, insectivorous birds, and are widely distributed, especially during migration. Numerous studies have documented different species of these birds (swifts, barn swallows, and martins) in most parts of Palestine [1] [2] [11] [16] [41] . The presence of these birds has prompted many researchers, such as Al-Safadi [57] , Hahn et al. [58] and Bloch et al. [59] to study the reproductive biology and foraging behavior of some of their species in Palestine.

Raptors, also known as birds of prey, are a group of carnivorous birds characterized by their sharp talons and hooked beaks, which they use to catch and kill their prey. Examples of the raptors recorded in this study included kites, eagles, buzzards, hawks, falcons and owls (see Table 1 ). They are skilled hunters with keen eyesight and powerful wings, enabling them to soar and dive at high speeds. Wherever they live, in Palestine and around the world, raptors play a vital role in their ecosystems, as they are among the most important predators in the food chain. Some raptors also feed on animal carcasses, helping to clean them and prevent the spread of disease [60] . Unlike Accipitriformes and Falconiformes, which are diurnal, Strigiformes (owls) are nocturnal, meaning they sleep during the day and hunt at night. Unfortunately, the Palestinian territories suffer from the overhunting and trafficking of wild birds, especially raptors, both in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip ( Figure 13 ), which has led to their threatened existence [10] [15] [18] . One need only take a field trip to the markets and shops selling pet animals in the Palestinian territories to realize the extent of the disaster in hunting and trading raptors or birds of prey. In fact, the trade in illegally caught raptors is a global phenomenon and may threaten many species [61] [62] . Globally, 18% of raptors are threatened with extinction and 52% have declining populations [63] .

Many wild birds, including some invasive species, are hunted by some wildlife hunters in Palestine, both in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Poaching is considered one of the most significant problems facing wildlife, particularly rare birds, in Palestine, as indicated by numerous local studies [18] [64] - [68] . There are many reasons for hunting birds, some for food, some for unknown reasons, some for sale at low prices to zoos, and some for trade in markets or pet shops ( Figure 13 ) [69] [70] . Hunting and trafficking of wild birds is not limited to Palestine, but is spreading to other Middle Eastern countries [71] - [79] .

Of all the bird species recorded in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque and considered of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the European Turtle Dove (Streptopelia turtur Linnaeus, 1758) is classified as vulnerable (VU). Locally, the species along with other dove and bird species is hunted, traded and eaten by Palestinians ( Figure 13 ) [69] [70] [80] . Globally, the species has experienced a sharp decline in population numbers over the past decades [81] . Habitat destruction in breeding and wintering areas, as well as poaching (both legal and illegal), are considered the main causes of this decline [82] . Thus, protecting the bird requires a global conservation strategy that includes habitat and hunting management [83] .

With regard to invasive bird species in the Palestinian territories, three have been recorded in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque. The Indian Silverbill or White-throated Munia (Euodice malabarica Linnaeus, 1758), which has not been recorded in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque, is known to be another invader found in other parts of Palestine [1] [3] [84] . Because of their distinctive characteristics, urban landscapes attract relatively large numbers of invasive bird species in certain areas of the world [85] [86] . The annoying Indian Myna causes significant losses to farmers because it attacks crops and fruits. From an ecological perspective, it is considered a threat to many wildlife species and many domestic animals as well, as explained by Abd Rabou [65] and Handal and Qumsiyeh [87] . This bird has been recorded in several Middle Eastern countries over the past two or three decades [88] - [96] . According to Holzapfel et al. [97] , the Indian Myna is listed among the 100 worst invasive species worldwide and is implicated in numerous negative impacts on native bird biodiversity. Some Gazan farmers consider the Indian Myna a friend due to its ability to eat insect pests, including the Red Palm Weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier, 1790) [65] , which has become a threat to Date Palm trees in the Gaza Strip over the past two decades [98] .

Large numbers of the invasive Rose-ringed Parakeet are now being commonly caught and sold at Palestinian markets and shops selling pets because of its attractive colors and ability to learn and imitate speech [69] . These birds pose many potential dangers locally because of their feeding on agricultural crops, especially fruits and their competition with some local wild birds, especially cavity-nesting ones [66] [99] . Monk Parakeet numbers are growing rapidly in the region, and the species has expanded from mostly urban areas into agricultural environments [100] [101] . Awad et al. [4] confirmed that bird watchers and wildlife photographers reported seeing Monk Parakeets in several West Bank governorates after their arrival from Israel, which had brought them from abroad.

The Rock Pigeon or Dove (Columba livia Gmelin, JF, 1789), which is a member of the Columbidae family, is a common feature of Palestinian ecosystems, both natural and human-made, including the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque. The Rock Pigeon is the ancestor of all Domesticated and Feral Pigeons and is often found in large numbers in rural areas, towns and cities. It is common for visitors and worshippers to see Feral Pigeons among the flocks of the Rock Pigeons in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque in various colors. In fact, Feral Pigeons are the most successful avian colonies of the cities and are characterized by wide variation in plumage [102] [103] . Flocks of the gentle Rock Pigeon are a familiar and enjoyable sight for Palestinians wherever they go, from the north to the Negev Desert in the south, and from the eastern borders of Palestine, where the Dead Sea and the Jordan River are located, to the Mediterranean coastal plain.

Some Palestinians sometimes hunt certain species of doves for food, especially in marginal areas or those experiencing difficult military conditions, such as the Gaza Strip in the far southwest of Palestine [80] . In the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque, that blessed spot in the world, the Palestinians view the Rock Pigeons differently. Jerusalemites, worshippers, and visitors feed the Rock Pigeons and scatter seeds for them to pick up, hoping for God’s reward for this good deed. No one hunts the Rock Pigeons, as their aesthetic value in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque is great and not overlooked. This act is not limited to the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque, but is common throughout the world.

This human behavior, fueled by a love for Rock and Feral Pigeons, has been observed in various courtyards and urban sites around the world (Personal Observations in Alexandria of Egypt, Mecca or Makkah al-Mukarramah of Saudi Arabia, Amman of Jordan, Tel Aviv of Palestine, Budapest of Hungary, Valletta of Malta, Madrid of Spain and Massachusetts of USA). Rock and Feral Pigeons have become accustomed to consuming waste grain and seeds, and human food waste, including bread and other leftovers in urban areas [104] . This reliance has led to their thriving populations in cities and towns across the world. As in many cities around the world, in the Swiss city of Basel, huge flocks of Rock and Feral Pigeons naturally search for food in the streets, squares, parks, and agricultural areas surrounding the city, as well as on sidewalks and railway lines [105] .

As is the case with Rock Pigeons in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque, there is usually a state of respect, appreciation, and love for Rock Pigeons, known as Pigeons of the Grand Mosque or Pigeons of Al-Haram or Pigeons of al-Hema, in the areas surrounding the Grand Mosque (Masjid al-Haram) in Mecca (Makkah al-Mukarramah) and the Prophet’s Mosque (Al-Masjid an-Nabawi) in Medina (al-Madinah al-Munawwarah or Taybah), Saudi Arabia [106] . Typically, adequate food for Rock Pigeons, including wheat, corn, and other food items, is provided at holy sites in Saudi Arabia by pilgrims, visitors, and local residents [107] , as shown in Figure 14 . Once again, many people around the holy sites in Palestine and Saudi Arabia are taking souvenir photos of themselves surrounded by flocks of Rock and Feral Pigeons, feeding those grains, or holding them in their arms (see Figure 11 ).

Domestic cats are very common in Palestine, including Al-Quds (Jerusalem) [108] [109] . They are known to be fierce and efficient predators, and their motivation to hunt and kill is not unlike that of their wild ancestors [110] . They take a wide range of wildlife species, including birds [111] [112] . This behavior of cats is a result of cats’ natural predatory instincts and is not necessarily driven by hunger, as even well-fed cats will hunt birds if given the opportunity. What’s worse in the predation behavior of cats is that cats hunt for fun, and will catch and kill many more small animals than they eat, including birds. Rock and Feral Pigeons are a common food source for Domestic Cats in urban environments. Adult and young Rock, Feral and Domestic Pigeons, along with their eggs, are at risk from Wild Cats (Felis silvestris) and Feral and Domestic Cats in the Gaza Strip, as pointed out by Abd Rabou and Abd Rabou [80] . Similar to what sometimes happens in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque, Domestic Cats have been observed attacking and preying on members of the Rock and Feral Pigeon flocks that prevail in the areas surrounding the Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, during the Hajj and Umrah seasons (Personal Observations).

The courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque constitute an urban environment adorned with thirty species of native and exotic trees and shrubs, and seventy-eight species of birds, both passerine and non-passerine. These vital elements interact with each other, enhancing the beauty of this religious, spiritual, and historical site in the world, which most Arabs and Muslims aspire to visit, pray, and worship in. Rock and Feral Pigeons are abundant in the place and receive constant care and feeding from Jerusalemites, visitors, and worshippers. To increase the number of birds on this blessed site, it is recommended to enhance the vegetation cover and manage it sustainably to attract these beautiful and indispensable creatures.

The researchers would like to thank Jerusalemites and worshippers for their encouragement and support for this unique study, and for providing all the information related to the birds found in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque in Al-Quds (Jerusalem), Palestine.