Community policing in the Philippine context is purposive for the greater benefit of the constituents, which is to improve by prioritizing the welfare and rights of the citizenry. The relevance of the study is rooted in the theories of Broken Windows Theory of Criminology and Social Capital Theory. The research contributes to the legitimacy and applicability of these theories in the local context.

The Broken Windows Theory of Criminology emphasizes visible signs of crime and disorder. The theory states that any visible signs of crime and civil disorder, such as broken windows, vandalism, loitering, public drinking, jaywalking, and transportation fare evasion, create an urban environment that promotes even more crime and disorder ( Wilson & Kelling, 1982 ). As such, policing these misdemeanors will help create an ordered and lawful society in which all citizens feel safe and crime rates, including violent crime rates, are low. Broken windows policing tries to regulate low-level crime to prevent widespread disorder from occurring. If these small crimes are greatly reduced, then neighborhoods will appear to be more cared for.

The Social Capital Theory highlights community trust and cooperation. Putnam (2001) posits that social connections and community relationships (social capital) are essential for building trust, facilitating operation, promoting collective action, enhancing democratic participation, and improving community well-being. This is essential for addressing social problems aligned with the promotion of the police community as an effective tool in achieving peace.

One of the tangible impact studies is the Revitalized Pulis Sa Barangay (R-PSB). It has been affirmed that the PNP has grown to be a mission to maintain the advancements made by government programs provided to the barangays, averting any possible resurgence of terrorists and protecting the public in general ( Llanto et al., 2024 ). The level of community awareness and performance of the Revitalized Pulis Sa Barangay reveals that the community was aware of visibility and the activity programs implemented. It also demonstrated a very high level of community safety and police-community ties, along with a very high level of law enforcement. This emphasized that police play a vital role in maintaining peace and security at the grassroots level of communities.

The same discovery was attained in the ‘Renovation Period’ in 1986 in Vietnam. Luong (2020) researched community-based policing, alongside several considerable achievements in the field of socio-economic, political, social, and sustainable development. After 20 years of implementation, the program has been recorded as one of the most impacted activities to contribute to maintaining national security and social order. O’Neill et al. (2023) discovered that despite the popularity of the community policing method and its positive effects on communities, it defied attempts to establish a clear definition and replicable form. Policing is now found across the world and is growing in influence. However, there is no evidence suggesting that community policing has an impact on reducing disorders, drug sales, or property crime, but it does have an impact on reducing crimes such as burglary, gun use, and drug use ( Ekici et al., 2022 ).

In the study Strengthening Community Mobilization Program: Its Implication on Building Police-Community Relations, it was revealed that the majority of the community members who belong to the middle class, businessmen, and live in a rural community, CP is beneficial for the preservation of peace, providing economic sustainability, and development. Moreover, the majority of personnel described community organization, community information and education, community empowerment and mobilization, and certification of mobilized barangays as always implemented, while the community members described them as often implemented. The majority of the respondents strongly agreed on the effects of strengthening policies ( Boller-Piol et al., 2024 ).

In the same context, the findings in the Revisiting the Community and Service Oriented Policing (CSOP) System: Basis for Sustainable Peace and Order, the aim of this study was to revisit the community and service-oriented policing (CSOP) system for sustainable peace and order. Local chief executives are in full support of the implementation of the community and service-oriented policing system, as they are regularly coordinating with the provincial/regional office of the National Police Commission. They are ready to give funds as their support to the implementation of the community and service-oriented policing for the betterment of their constituents in the municipality/city, as these were based on the problems that people in the community had experienced ( De Lana et al., 2025 ).

The study addresses the identified gap and explores context-specific strategies, particularly in the loopholes of CP implementation in the Philippines.

The CP perspectives are clarified and verified concerning the status of LGU Pinili.

1) Enforcement

Firstly, LGU Pinili is emerging as a peaceful and orderly community, where friendly law enforcers and politicians, as well as community members, are well satisfied with the performance of the present administrative force. These are affirmed in the thematic findings in Figure 1 , that it is indeed optimistic to state that there are no threats in the peace and order situation, as it is asserted by eleven (11) frequencies in the interview transcripts. Although it is seemingly the contrast of one situation suggesting weak support for the assertion that neighborhood conflicts often stem from differences in opinions and interests, the situation cannot jeopardize the peace and order condition of the municipality. This is because neighborhood conflict is not a major threat to the stability of the town. It is thus accurate to generalize the observation that peace and security prevail because of the dedication of the police force.

It must be noted that no graft and corruption issues or problems have been identified nor reacted to by the participants, and it is further noted that corruption suspiciously occurs when politicians suddenly get rich because of commissions from contractors. These findings uphold the status of the municipality, supporting its peaceful condition. Although one of the unacceptable realities that is happening in the town is that traditional politicians normally happen. However, it cannot completely create chaos due to the sentiments and support of the citizens for the practice of traditional politics. The practice is deemed acceptable because of

political manipulation on the side of vote-buying. Moreover, it is worth noting that the presence of the leftist group, AMIN (Alyansa dagiti Mannalon ti Ilocos Norte), is a stumbling block to development, as their defiance is centered on corruption, favoring the farmers. Such is the cause of a manageable disorder that may transpire in the area, which is nonetheless considered isolated.

In the sphere of corruption, Villaruz (2021) concluded that curbing fraud requires complex solutions, and it provided insights or mechanisms required to help fight corruption in the government: 1) focusing initiatives on graft-prone areas; 2) promoting and strengthening people’s advocacy; 3) the need for political will of leaders to look into the problem; 4) effort to develop leadership ethical training as part of staff development program; 5) the need to incorporate core values and ethical conduct. These insights are undoubtedly practiced by the administrative force in curbing the embezzlement of public funds. This is why it is a fair and general observation that no graft and corruption cases have occurred in the area contributing to the cause of the leftist group, which is vocal in fighting this crime.

Moreover, one of the observations that came up is the prevailing peace and security threats, which are climate change, poverty, theft, robbery, and drug users and pushers. The Crime Index provides only 1 theft per year, which does not match the claim. This may be a result of a hefty generalization. Although climate change and poverty are the environmental and social problems currently being faced by the whole country, not just the municipality, the administrative force is doing its part to counter these issues. Hence, the observation remains suitable for harmonious living is categorically relevant and acceptable, as the average monthly crime rate of 0.39 for the year 2022, 0.68 for the year 2023, and 0.65 for the year 2024 substantially supports the claim.

Additionally, the findings on vehicular accidents are monitored, solved, and reduced. These firmly hold the ground for the full enforcement of laws with effectiveness and efficiency because of the success indicators in the Crime Index of 70% in 2022, with 10 cases and 7 were solved, 100% in 2023 with 7 cases and all were solved, and 80% for 2024 with 9 cases, and 8 were consequently solved.

2) Trust & High Performance

The theme Trust & High Performance (see Figure 2 below) denotes a commendable state that trusts in local leaders, and PNP is high because of dedicated services, satisfaction, cooperation, full efforts, and visible action. This assertion is commensurate with the general status of the town for being peaceful and orderly. The majority of the participants sustained and upheld that trust, and high performance is the reality present in the town. Such confirmation is also attested by community policing programs, which are effective tools for managing and resolving conflicts. This is in parallel with the pronouncement that CP programs are effective tools because the community is trained as well. Indeed, the police force has been playing a vital role in the program and development by implementing their duties and responsibilities with high integrity and enthusiasm, despite the

odds of limited manpower, which, at present, the police to civilian ratio is 1:756. The findings are in line with police effectiveness in serving and protecting the people involved in co-production, where the police partner with citizens to prevent and fight crime and maintain order in the community. The three key elements of CP that are implemented: 1) refocused police strategy; 2) partnership with citizens; 3) problem solving ( Morín, 2023 ). The same line of action has been traversed by the local police authority with the implementation of the specific CP program, Project Karrubak, Kabaranggayak, Bantayak has been asserted as an effective tool for addressing threats, as it minimizes or eliminates petty crimes and disorder.

Undoubtedly, community programs revitalize peace and security while police visibility continues as a tool for effective peace and stability that fosters and ensures cooperation between the police and the community. Trust and high-performance emancipating from the PNP, and political leaders are strongly shown, and these are depicted in the turnout of the transcript.

3) Quality Service

Quality service in Figure 3 (see below), it can be gleaned that situations are challenging the delivery and execution of quality services, defying the worthiness rendered to the community. This is illuminated to improve the services of the political leaders, including the PNP, with the unreserved participation of the people. With the participants’ feedback, the challenges pertain to the following: 1) the limited resources, distrust, and lack of awareness; 2) building trust, increasing visibility, fostering collaboration, and empowering local leaders; 3) fostering stronger partnerships between law enforcement and residents, and implementing regular dialogue sessions to address any concerns were divulged and are genuine observations. These challenges entail that the PNP needs to respond to the current demands and is bound to overcome them.

Vora et al. (2024) recognized that police accountability is essential for public trust, which is necessary for effective policing. Police transparency ensures accountability of officers, and developing lasting trust in law enforcement is beneficial for the community. Greater inclusion of the community in policing is crucial to improving the dialogue between the public and law enforcement. Police accountability is essential for modern policing, requiring law enforcement agencies to adhere to ethical norms and procedures.

Thus, it is mindful to note that the police have evolved into adhering to the contemporary strategy of policing, as evidenced by the evaluations of the participants.

Challenges reside in the increased community engagement and social media participation. It is a must to establish collaborative partnerships between the local government, other law enforcement agencies, religious sectors, and other community sectors. This is building a close and friendly approach for the sustainability of the existing plans and projects of the local government. With the foremost objective of the attainment of equality before the laws, it is best to implement this

to both local and national laws, corroborating it with community policing that is commensurate with the ideal ratio of PNP personnel with civilians to 1:500.

Community involvement, information drive, meeting police visibility, and patrolling are the scenes to be achieved for the advancement to a more progressive place. The strategy must coincide with a well-cultivated action plan. The quality of service of the PNP is astoundingly high, which shows that a continuous challenge is needed to improve more in adapting to the changing needs of the times.

Indeed, peace and order dominate the situation in Pinili as evidenced by the data presented in the theme Enforcement (see Figure 1 ). This is a concerted effort of the present political administration, Pinili MPS headed by police officers in separate year terms, namely; 1) February to June 2022 PMAJ Marzan; 2) June 2022 to Jan 2023 PCPT Ordonio; 3) Jan 2023 to Sept 2024 PCPT Arellano; 4) Sept 2024 to present PMAJ Marzan. The effort is also a result of the vital contribution of the Peace and Order Committee, government officials, barangay officials, and the local citizenry, who are naturally peace-loving people, as it is affirmed in the socio-cultural dimension of the locality. The triangulation of the theme’s enforcement, high-performance, and quality-service has a concrete influence on the creation of effective community policing, resulting in a high positive output of stable and firm peace & security benefits for the creation of a thematic diagram (see Figure 4 below).

In particular, peace and security are undoubtedly achieved because of the presence of several vibrant ordinances. Some of these ordinances are 1) comprehensive anti-smoking policy, 2) regulation on drag racing, 3) sale and use of firecrackers, 4) adoption of anti-criminal action plan on anti-illegal drugs, 5) resolution adopting the localized anti-criminality action plan (LACAP) intensifying mobile and motorcycling patrolling, 6) ordinance on curfew hours for children, 7) ordinance on bicycle riders to wear protective gear, 8) establishment of management information system, 9) amendments to traffic regulations and among others.

LGU Pinili has also created and implemented several LACAP, namely, 1) anti-criminality arrive-alive, 2) fixed Oplan Sita, 3) project helmet, 4) know road safety, no injury, 5) alcohol: moderation is a key, enjoy responsibility, 6) PROTECT Box, 7) project VEST, 8) project SIREN,9) project kuliglig/kurong-kurong, 10) operation BOGA, 11) project kaluluwa 12) opeation stop drag race, 13) anti-illegal drugs, 14) project IMPACT, and 15) project CCTV. These LACAP Programs were fully enforced with high-performance and quality service, with the profound participation of the people, generating an effective community policing yielding a peace and order situation in the municipality.

In the thematic diagram, the indispensable triangulation of effects that the themes of enforcement, quality service, and high performance are, in essence, important factors for community policing needed in the establishment and attainment of peace and order. Indeed, the diagram confirms and attests to the findings of Vora et al. (2024) that police accountability is essential for public trust and that police transparency develops lasting trust in law enforcement.

In contrast to the thematic analysis, the SWOC provides an interlinked evaluation of the qualitative strand gathered. This is with the element of establishing a reciprocal community relation with the common objective of attaining peace and order.

Figure 5 shows the details of the status of the administrative force in their last three (3) years of performance from the year 2022 to 2024. The positive response to these threats and challenges will necessitate the creation of a more progressive and advanced place. The prominent strengths visible in the paradigm are the following:

1) Trust in the local leaders and PNP.

2) No threats to the peace and order.

3) Prevailing peace and order situation.

4) Effective community police programs re: LACAP.

5) Full trust of residents.

6) Absence of graft and corruption issues.

7) Dedicated Police Force.

8) Effective LACAP project Kaaruba, Kabarangayak, Bantayak.

9) Effective community program.

10) Isolated crimes in the area.

11) Close and friendly approach of local leaders & community.

12) Policy programs fostered cooperation.

With the classification of the status of the LGU, it is indeed firm to postulate that harmonious community relations exist between the administrative officers and the community. The weaknesses in the status of the LGU are the following:

1) Community/neighborhood conflicts arise from different interests.

2) Suspicions of corruption.

3) Normal occurrence of traditional politicians.

4) Political manipulation practiced in vote-buying.

5) Presence of drug abuse.

It is explicit that neighborhood conflicts arise due to different interests, which is not categorically considered a threat, only a weakness, because of the nature of the conflict, which involves personal or family disputes. The probability of a lack of police visibility through patrolling and constant dialogue with the local citizens is the anticipated reason. Family quarrels are petty issues that are not dangerous for the entire community, but only within the family.

In the aspect of corruption, this is a legitimate weakness that resides in the political leaders, but not necessarily in the law enforcers, the PNP. This weakness may be resolved through a personal reformation of the political leaders themselves, as this concerns their suspicious embezzlement of public funds from their projects. It must be noted that commissions from the project are the usual transactions that take place with the contractors, done subtly. More so, if the construction firm is owned by the politician himself, the more public funds are set aside and pocketed. Corruption issues can become the reason for a debacle or anti-administration assembly that may cause a public threat, in the same way that public protests may be undertaken.

The weaknesses in the normal occurrence of traditional politicians and political manipulation that is executed through vote-buying are clear experiences of the participants, evoking the acceptability of traditional politics in the area. In one sense, no one hailed to oppose vote-buying as a manipulative act of politicians. It is shown that the participants themselves can tolerate this practice only if the politicians prioritize the needs of the public rather than their self-interest. Vote-buying is rampant in the locality, which cannot be obliterated as disadvantageous to public interest, but it can be a potential cause of public disorder by a clash between opposing political parties.

On the other hand, the obvious opportunities found in Figure 5 are the following:

1) Collaborative partnerships.

2) Building trust, increasing visibility, and empowerment of leaders.

3) Role of PNP in the program and development.

4) Effective community programs.

5) Police visibility as a tool for stability.

These data consequently denote greater potential of actualizing greater achievements for the administrative officers, if programs are done through collaborative partnerships, building trust, increasing visibility, and empowering leaders. This is similar to the manner of capturing the role of PNP in executing their police programs aimed at development, particularly focused on police visibility and community relations. In aiming for stability, it all depends on the dedication and commitment of the administration officers in rendering their unprecedented services.

The zenith of the SWOC analysis is in the established points for challenges. The challenges are the following:

1) Stronger partnerships between law enforcement and residents.

2) Sexual abuse poses peace and security threats.

3) Equality before the law.

4) Depleted number of police officers (current ratio 1:750 compared to 1:500).

5) Increase community engagement and social media participation.

6) Police & Brgy Tanod visibility through constant patrolling.

7) Challenge of community involvement and information drive.

8) Presence of the leftist group AMIN, the reaction is to corruption.

9) Monitoring of vehicular accidents on the highway.

The condition is that if all these challenges are responded to, then the peace status of the town will be sustained and will go a long way. However, if these challenges are not addressed, then the peace status will convert into artificial, meaning that peace will only be a subjective claim, and security will be jeopardized.

One of the pressing issues is the presence of the leftist group, whose attention is on corruption. This must be given appropriate police attention through intensive intelligence for gathering first-hand information concerning their ongoing movements. Corruption must be given serious attention to capture neutrality, favoring no one on the sides of politicians, civilians, and the leftist group. If the issue of corruption is eliminated, then the objective of AMIN will be disregarded. Hence, the leftist organization will be pacified.

In general, the SWOC paradigm implies a value equilibrium to sustain the peace and order situation of the LGU. For the area to have continuous development and attain advancement, it must be able to constantly fulfill the standard of symmetry ( Figure 6 ) captured from the actual context of the study, specifically applicable to the town. The symmetry model stipulates the process by which the program of the LGU contributes to the realization of progress and development, that the action plans of the police force through the LACAP should be focused on the reciprocal association with the community, for it is the community that the PNP has directly adhered to serve.

One main tool that may be implemented is the interoperability of forces like the Regional Mobile Force Battalion 1, PROTECT Boxes, Barangay Information Network (BIN), and Brgy Officials in monitoring potential cataclysm, most especially to the leftist group. This interoperability is related to Revitalized Pulis Sa Barangay (R-PSB) and it has been pronounced that the PNP has grown to be a mission to maintain the advancements made by government programs provided to the barangays, averting any possible resurgence of terrorists and protecting the public in general ( Llanto et al., 2024 ).