Job satisfaction of secondary school science teachers is of key importance for their performance. The satisfaction the teachers receive from their educational activity is reflected on the quality of their work ( Perera et al., 2022 ). Secondary school teachers are charged with the task of ensuring that all students achieve scientific literacy ( Armer, 2011 ). Therefore, as the teaching of scientific principles covers a wide area of human reality (understanding the biology of living organisms, natural phenomena, technological applications, etc.), it is vital to investigate those aspects that play an important role on the professional satisfaction of teachers. As long as they are content with what they do, this in turn manifests and has a positive effect on how students experience the educational process ( Toropova et al., 2021 ).

In regard to the factors influencing the job satisfaction of secondary science teachers, workload, salary, relationship with colleagues, and the role of leadership play are decisive ( Hean & Garrett, 2001 ; Armer, 2011 ; Bozeman et al., 2013 ; Gibbs-Harper, 2015 ). Studies have highlighted this exact relation, to the extent that those parameters may lead to the teacher intensifying their effort or, on the contrary, giving up their job ( Grissom, 2011 ). Studies showcase the relation between job satisfaction and the relation among teachers. In some cases, the relevance is moderate ( Armer, 2011 ), while in others significant ( Toropova et al., 2021 ). Communication emerged as a critical factor, both between colleagues, as well as in the way management clarifies and emphasizes on the requirements and priorities ( Armer, 2011 ; Gibbs-Harper, 2015 ).

The study by Bozeman et al. (2013) found that secondary science teachers expressed satisfaction with their relationships with other teachers and attributed this to the bonds they have developed.. In an environment where competition or non-cooperative interactions prevail, not only does the sense of satisfaction decrease, but also professional burnout is enhanced ( Armer, 2011 ). In the same direction, Den Brok et al. (2010) showed that science teachers perceive their collaboration level to be lower compared to teachers of other specialties.

In addition, the greater the workload assigned to teachers, the lower the sense of satisfaction they receive from exercising their educational duties ( Armer, 2011 ; Toropova et al., 2021 ). In Park et al. (1994) , more than half of the 146 science teachers who participated claimed that they are tasked with many chores related to classroom teaching. They expressed a desire to be burdened with less teaching load and to be relieved of non-teaching duties. Furthermore, they emphasized the need for teaching facilities and office space where they can efficiently complete their assignments and evaluate student tests. They also reported the challenges they face when it comes to conducting laboratory courses, particularly citing the time-consuming nature of experiment preparation as a barrier to assessing students’ practical work ( Park et al. 1994 ). To that extent, working conditions affect the way teachers experience their work. Stressful conditions, stressful conditions dramatically reduce job satisfaction ( Armer, 2011 ).

As far as the leadership effect on teachers’ job satisfaction is concerned, it has a positive impact when their superior (middle or high school principal) accurately defines the school’s priorities and effectively manages the teaching program ( Armer, 2011 ; Gibbs-Harper, 2015 ). Similar to this is the positive attitude expressed by the participants towards the supervision and evaluation process ( Hean & Garrett, 2001 ; Toropova et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, the research conducted by Hean & Garrett (2001) focusing on the job satisfaction of secondary school science teachers in Chile, brought about that leadership has a significant impact on employee satisfaction. Bozeman et al. (2013) reported that 60% of teachers expressed satisfaction with the support they received from school principals. By income we mean the basic salary, additional allowances, promotion, pension and any other monetary benefit deriving from work ( Miller, 2018 ). It appears that the salary is the main criterion by which secondary school science teachers evaluate the quality of their work in this field ( Armer, 2011 ). In fact, it is an influential factor that determines whether teachers will stay or leave their profession ( Miller, 2018 ). According to Hean & Garrett (2001) , most secondary science teachers express dissatisfaction with their wages.

A positive correlation was also found between job satisfaction and work engagement (“a positive, satisfying, work-related state of mind characterized by vigor, dedication, and focus”), which highlights the need for enabling a positive work environment and support by the superiors ( Park & Johnson, 2019 ). On the contrary, a straightforward connection between teaching experience and professional satisfaction of natural science teachers is not deduced. In any case, the findings are contradictory and subjected to the conditions and differences among each country’s school system ( Toropova et al., 2021 ). Finally, an important finding is included in Hean & Garrett (2001) , according to which a fundamental source of job satisfaction for science teachers is working with students. More specifically, it relates to the relationship between self-efficacy and job satisfaction ( Perera et al., 2022 ). At the same time, teachers’ sense of self-efficacy is linked to students’ performance and degree of success, and this is reflected (among other things) in the various teaching methods that teachers can employ in order to achieve better effectiveness ( Perera et al., 2022 ). The fact that at the center of their work are young people and the possibility to play a crucial role in their education seems to have a decisive effect ( Hean & Garrett, 2001 ).

Science teachers job satisfaction varies according to the demographics and professional profile. According to a study conducted by Luft & Roehrig (2005) younger teachers are often more enthusiastic, which is a result of their satisfaction deriving from the relationships they develop with their colleagues ( Bozeman et al. 2013 ). At the same time, science teachers with years of experience and job stability tend to have higher levels of satisfaction compared to their younger counterparts ( Van Maele & Van Houtte, 2012 ). This is mainly attributed to the stability of being in the profession for a period. Furthermore, as reported by Bozeman et al. (2013) , when teachers develop relationships with their colleagues over time, they generally report higher levels of job satisfaction. Hean & Garrett (2001) state that women are usually more satisfied with their salary compared to men. Mocheche et al. (2018) conducted a survey that focused on the number of secondary school science teachers, in which the levels of job satisfaction for permanent teachers were higher compared to the temporary ones. The research of Zimmerman et al. (1980) and Mwamwenda (1997) found that marriage is a positive factor for science teacher satisfaction, attributing that to a married science teacher experiencing a better quality of life. Further teacher education is widely recognized as the process of enhancing teaching practices. during their studies aspiring teachers are encouraged to improve their teaching skills and improve their working conditions ( Armer, 2011 ; Pérez Fuentes et al., 2023 ). In addition, the research of Green & Muñoz (2016) shows that teachers who have a higher degree, a master or a doctorate, tend to evaluate better their teaching work.

In order to investigate the relationship between science teachers job satisfaction and aspects of their work, the researchers provided a variety of tools. Armer (2011) administered the job satisfaction questionnaire (JSS), including parameters such as salary, promotion, colleagues, working conditions, etc. In the research of Perera et al. (2022) quantitative data were collected by administering a 35-minute questionnaire related to demographics, teaching practices and self-efficacy perception. In Gibbs-Harper’s ( Gibbs-Harper, 2015 ) research, two different questionnaires were administered: a) the PIMRS (Hallinger’s Core Instructional Management Rating Scale), which consists of 50 closed-ended questions that measure perceptions regarding school curriculum management, defining school’s goal and promoting a positive teaching atmosphere, b) the TJSQ (Lester’s Teacher Professional Satisfaction Questionnaire), which consists of 77 graded closed-ended questions. In Miller’s ( Miller, 2018 ) research the FAJSTR questionnaire was used, consisting of 35 questions investigating the degree of job satisfaction. On the other hand, Hean & Garrett (2001) utilized a combination of open and closed type questions. In particular, in order to investigate the degree of professional satisfaction experienced by the participating teachers, an open-ended and graded questions questionnaire (Teacher Professional Study) was administered.

The relation between job satisfaction, work commitment and intention to leave the teaching profession, was studied by Park and Johnson (2019) via the following scales: a) for job satisfaction, the short version of the MSQ (Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire), consisting of 20 closed-type questions ranging from 1 (not satisfied) to 5 (extremely satisfied), b) for work engagement, the short version of the UWES (Utrecht Work Engagement Scale), consisting of 9 questions graded from 0 (never) to 6 (always), c) the MAOQ (Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire), which measures the intention to quit on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). In some, correlational data analysis was performed ( Perera et al., 2022 ; Toropova et al., 2021 ). More specifically, they used data from the TIMSS, a large-scale comparative study, in which 46 countries took part, aiming at cross-referencing data on student proficiency and achievement in mathematics and science. In the work of Perera et al. (2022) , data were drawn from two different countries, France (226 teachers) and the Czech Republic (183 teachers). On the contrary, the work of Toropova et al. (2021) focused on 200 teachers from Sweden.

The current research examined the levels of job satisfaction of secondary school science teachers in the prefecture of Attica in the school year, 2022 - 2023 in relation to certain factors. Satisfaction with the nature of the profession was high for 70.45%, which is in agreement with the findings of Bozeman et al. (2013) , where the corresponding percentage was 90%. Levels of satisfaction toward leadership were found to be moderate to high. Slightly more than half reported that the leadership actively tries to resolve the issues presented to them (56.82%) and recognizes the educational initiatives taken by the teachers (62.50%). In addition, the supervisors at their school contribute effectively to forming a cooperative climate (59.09%) and to effectively manage the curriculum (54.55%). The results are in agreement with the study of Hean & Garrett (2001) which examined the factors influencing job satisfaction among science teachers in Chile regarding leadership, as well as the study of Bozeman et al. (2013) reporting that 60% of teachers are satisfied with the supporting conditions of school leadership.

The vast majority of teachers (more than 67%) reported that the relations with the colleagues are harmonious, but not cooperative to the desired degree. Bozeman et al. (2013) reported that secondary science teachers are satisfied with their relationships with their colleagues, which is due to the interpersonal relationships they have developed (also Toropova et al., 2021 ). However, Den Brok et al. (2010) reported that science teachers perceived their level of cooperation to be lower compared to teachers of other specialties. In addition, they stated that the working environment could be more cooperative. The relation between job satisfaction and workload was moderate, considering that the main complaints related to the amount of time it takes teachers to correct tests (65.91%) and the heavier workload than teachers in other fields (39.77%), such as administrative duties and excessive meetings ( Song & Mustafa, 2015 ), as well as managing the weekly teaching schedule for all teachers. Regarding satisfaction towards students’ performance, more than half (56.82%) reported that students find it difficult to solve a given problem on their own, and the vast majority (84.09%) expressed the need to implement alternative teaching methods to improve student performance in science courses.

Low were the levels of satisfaction for the majority (more than 63%) in respect to salary earnings, to the prospect of receiving a satisfactory pension, to overtimes, to the adding value of teaching work and the possibilities of economic development, a finding which is in agreement with the study of Hean & Garrett (2001) . Regarding the effect of the demographic and professional profile on job satisfaction, age was found to be of significance, since young teachers aged 25 - 35 years tend to make a more enthusiastic career start, while older, aged 51 - 70, develop better relationships with colleagues and superiors over the years. The study by Luft & Roehrig (2005) found that newly beginning teachers were excited about a range of new experiences. On the other hand, the researches of Van Maele & Van Houtte (2012) and Bozeman et al. (2013) shows that science teachers who carry more years of work on their shoulders exhibit higher levels of satisfaction, due to the stability of their profession. In regard to that specific age group of 25 - 35 years, the higher levels of job satisfaction may be attributed to the specifics of the very process of appointing secondary education teachers in Greece. The process involves a national competition, in which participants undergo an extensive and demanding writing testing. Given that not only is a process quite challenging with bottleneck success, but it also occurs once in many years, it is highly plausible that the enthusiasm of the freshly succeeded and hired teachers is reflected on higher job satisfaction.

Satisfaction with salary was lower for men, a finding consistent with the Hean & Garrett (2001) study, while inconsistent with the one by Bolin (2007) . The question of what makes women happier with their earnings from this line of occupation is not easy to be conclusively answered. According to Armer (2011) , gender is not a parameter that affects job satisfaction. Furthermore, Toropova et al. (2021) attributes this diversification in the socially attributed roles of the genders: “they are more accepting of their “traditional” roles of caring, nurturing and educating”, whereas men might feel off context when it comes to pass on knowledge through teaching. At the same time, though, Toropova et al. (2021) doubt that one-dimensional explanation, casting more light on the fact that male teachers in her research found cooperation to be of crucial importance for evaluating their job as satisfactory. To sum up, until now, there is no definite and sufficient interpretation of the variations in the degree of job satisfaction between men and women science teachers.

The findings of the present research regarding the low earnings satisfaction for permanent teachers, married and with PhDs are, however, not aligned with the corresponding findings of Mocheche et al. (2018) , Zimmerman et al. (1980) , Mwamwenda (1997) , Pérez Fuentes et al. (2023) and Green & Muñoz, (2016) . That may be attributed to the extended financial crisis of Greece during the previous decade. Due to the convenient sampling, the results refer to a sample with specific characteristics ( Creswell, 2014 ), i.e., mainly for Physicists of 41 - 60 years old, who taught in the Prefecture of Attica in the period 2022-2023, on a permanent work status, have a master’s degree or a PhD and more than 10 years of work experience. The small sample is a crucial limitation, not allowing for sufficient statistical inference ( Cohen, 1988 ). Furthermore, profession satisfaction was studied using a single question, which increases the possibility of systematic errors ( Taylor, 1999 ). Reliability was moderate in the factors of satisfaction with salary earnings and student performance. Future research should aim for a sample of at least 300 teachers, application of stratified sampling in Attica and use of a reliable and valid questionnaire to measure job satisfaction.

The secondary school science teachers of the prefecture of Attica in the school year, 2022 - 2023 turned out to be satisfied mainly with the nature of their profession, something which is aligned with other studies ( Armer, 2011 ; Bozeman et al, 2013 ; Song & Mustafa, 2015 ). The same applies with the positive imprint a present and assisting leadership has, as well as the relationships with colleagues ( Toropova et al., 2021 ). Major issues of concern include low wages (same with Ingersoll, 2000 ), as well as the need to implement alternative teaching methods in order to improve student performance in science courses ( Bozeman et al, 2013 ). Moreover, the findings showcased the workload as a constant negative factor, as corroborated by other studies ( Song & Mustafa, 2015 ; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011 ; Toropova et al., 2021 ). Younger teachers 25 - 35 showed higher degree of satisfaction with the profession something that comes to direct contradiction to previous findings ( Toropova et al., 2021 ), while those between 51 - 70 have developed better relationships with leadership and colleagues. The need for salary increase is higher for men and married.

All in all, the current research is novel in Greece, as far as the secondary education science teachers is concerned. The findings could help a further focus on the subject of job satisfaction of teachers, and more specifically on the steps that could help improving the overall positive impression about their field of work. To that extent, one of the most obvious suggestions is that a considerable amount of extra workload, non-linked to teaching duties, should be lifted from the teachers’ shoulders and be appointed to the administrative sector with the hiring of additional personnel. Apart from that, a reduction in teaching hours for teachers who are School Science Laboratory Managers is considered a necessary medium for alleviating the overall workload. To that extent, there should also be an increase in the as to now insufficient funding for science laboratories. The laboratories do not receive government support for consumables and equipment, and as a result they under function. On the other hand, there is an absence of science laboratories in many schools, even private ones. The lack of laboratories degrades the course and the educational experience, leading to reduced professional satisfaction of teachers. One more step would be for the administration to allow the teachers to participate in further updating and training courses through the Natural Sciences Laboratory Centers (NSLCs). Once a week, science teachers should be able to leave after the third two-hour period to participate in training activities, instead of being obliged to offer from their free time, as it is the norm in the current state. Last but not least, it is necessary for the science teachers to acquire through systematic training a deeper and wider know-how in the interpersonal level. That pertains not only to the manner, in which they communicate the complex scientific information to the students in a way that it could be understood and absorbed, but also in the empathy the teacher should show, when students find it difficult to assimilate the novel knowledge. That would improve the overall teaching process and outcome, and in return would increase the teachers’ sense of achievement ( Den Brok et al., 2010 ).

We would like to express our sincere thanks to all the teachers who generously gave their time and effort to participate in this study. Their valuable contribution to data collection has greatly enriched our research.