Field data were collected during two years, from 2021 to 2022, in five orchards located in two agroecological zones (AEZs) of Cameroon. These orchards, previously described in [2] , were not treated with insecticides. Detailed agroclimatic and edaphic profiles of each AEZ are also available in [2] .

AEZ 1 (Sudano-Sahelian Savannah) included two orchards situated in Ngong and Mbé, while AEZ 2 (High Guinea Savannah) comprised three orchards located in Malang, Manwi, and Marza. Each selected orchard covered at least five hectares and featured mixed tropical fruit trees, with mango (Mangifera indica L.) and guava (Psidium guajava L.) as the dominant species. All orchards were accessible and suitable for long-term ecological monitoring.

A total of four tephritid traps were installed at each sampling point, each baited with one of four male-specific lures: methyl-eugenol (ME), cue-lure (CU), trimedlure (TR), and terpinyl acetate (TA) [21] [25] [26] . Every trap contained the organophosphate insecticide dichlorvos (2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate, DDVP) as the killing agent. Traps were hung about 1.5 m above ground on sturdy fruit-tree branches. To minimize odor interference and edge effects, trap placement followed a standardized layout: the first trap was positioned 30 m inside the orchard boundary, and the remaining traps were set at 50 m intervals [27] . The Figure 1 illustrates the typical trap configuration.

A total of 16 traps was installed in each orchard (4 replicates × 4 lure types). The lures and DDVP insecticide were replaced every six weeks, resulting in eight complete sampling cycles per year in each orchard [28] . Sterile gloves were used

during all handling procedures to prevent cross-contamination between attractants. To reduce ant predation and interference from other organisms, a thick layer of automotive grease was applied to the branches used to suspend the traps [29] . Captured tephritid specimens were collected weekly and individually preserved in labeled entomological tubes containing 70% ethanol. All samples were then transported to the Zoology Laboratory of the University of Ngaoundéré for taxonomic identification.

Tephritid specimens were sorted under a stereomicroscope and identified to species level using standard morphological keys [30] . Additional identifications were carried out to confirm initial determinations at the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) in Montpellier, France, and at the Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA) in Tervuren, Belgium.

Alpha diversity was assessed using a tripartite approach that included: rarefaction analysis (species accumulation curves), rank-abundance (Whittaker) curves, and complementary diversity indices [31] .

Rarefaction curves were used to evaluate sampling completeness, with a 95% asymptotic plateau considered indicative of adequate sampling effort [32] .

Species abundance distributions were visualized using rank-abundance curves, where log-transformed abundance is plotted against species rank, in order to analyze patterns of dominance and evenness [33] .

Quantitative assessment of diversity was based on three complementary indices:

where p_i is the proportion of individuals belonging to tephritid species i, and S is the total species richness [31] [34] [35] .

The Shannon-Wiener index ranges from 0 to ln(S), indicating maximum diversity. Higher values of H' and 1 − D reflect greater diversity and more balanced communities. Pielou’s evenness index, ranging from 0 to 1, indicates more equitable species distribution when values are closer to 1.

Beta diversity between AEZs and orchards was evaluated using the Jaccard similarity index:

$J\left(\text{A},\text{B}\right)=\frac{a}{a+b+c}$;

where a is the number of species shared by orchards A and B, b is the number of species unique to orchard A, and c is the number of species unique to orchard B [36] . The index ranges from 0 (no species shared) to 1 (identical species composition). Pairwise similarity values were compiled into a matrix and visualized as a heatmap using a yellow-orange-red (YlOrRd) gradient scale from 0 to 100% to to illustrate the degree of species overlap.

To evaluate lure efficacy, the mean number of tephritids captured per trap and per sampling day was calculated for each male lure across all orchards. Statistical comparisons of abundance were performed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05), using XLSTAT software.

Selectivity was assessed by calculating the relative abundance of each species per male lure. The proportion of total captures attributed to each tephritid species was used to determine lure specificity and performance for targeted surveillance.

Species accumulation curves plateaued across all five orchards, indicating that the sampling effort, measured by cumulative sampling days, was sufficient to capture the local pool of male tephritid species and to support robust ecological analyses ( Figure 2 ). The asymptotic trend consistently observed in the curves of each orchard confirms that further sampling would likely yield only marginal gains in species detection.

The Whittaker diagram highlighted patterns of dominance within the tephritid communities studied across the AEZs. In particular, in AEZ 2, the steep slope of the curves reflected a highly unbalanced community, overwhelmingly dominated by Bactrocera dorsalis ( Figure 3 ). Conversely, the flatter curves observed in AEZ 1, notably in Ngong, indicated a more equitable species distribution, with several major pest species contributing significantly to community structure, especially B. dorsalis, Ceratitis cosyra, and Zeugodacus cucurbitae ( Figure 3 ).

Diversity indices revealed marked variations between the AEZs ( Figure 4 ). Orchards located in AEZ 1 exhibited high values for the Shannon-Wiener diversity index, Simpson’s index, and Pielou’s evenness index, indicating tephritid communities that were both species-rich and evenly distributed ( Figure 4 ). In contrast, diversity indices were significantly lower in AEZ 2, reflecting the numerical dominance of a single species and consequently a low evenness within each orchard ( Figure 4 ).

Jaccard similarity index values revealed high similarity within AEZ (J > 0.85), suggesting that shared species were more abundant than unique species within each AEZ ( Figure 5 ). In contrast, similarity values between AEZs were notably lower (~0.60), indicating a relatively weak ecological differentiation of tephritid communities between AEZs.

A total of nine male tephritid species were recorded across all surveyed orchards. Among them, Ceratitis bremii and C. punctata were absent from AEZ 2 ( Figure 6 ; Supplementary material Table S1 ).

Each male-specific lure exhibited significantly distinct selectivity profiles (p < 0.05), strongly influencing species composition assessments and underscoring the strategic importance of multi-lure trapping systems for comprehensive ecological surveillance and integrated tephritid management ( Figure 6 ; Supplementary material Table S2 ).

Methyl eugenol (ME) demonstrated exceptionally high attractiveness and specificity toward Bactrocera dorsalis, accounting for over 99% of captures across all orchards ( Figure 6 ), reflecting the species’ overwhelming numerical dominance under ME-based monitoring conditions (Supplementary material Table S1 and Table S2 ). Nevertheless, its relative abundance varied significantly between AEZs (p < 0.05), with lower representation in AEZ 1, particularly at Ngong and Mbé, compared to AEZ 2, where this species peaked with averages exceeding 1000 individuals per trapping event (Supplementary material Table S1 and Table S2 ).

Cue-lure (CU) exhibited moderate but variable performance, with significantly high capture rates at Ngong (16.76 ± 4.64) and markedly low rates at Mbé (3.69 ± 0.33) (Supplementary material Table S2 ). This lure attracted several cucurbit-associated species, notably Zeugodacus cucurbitae, Dacus punctatifrons, and D. bivittatus.

Trimedlure (TR) and terpinyl acetate (TA) displayed broader and less specific attraction profiles, capturing a more diverse assemblage of Ceratitis species, including C. cosyra, C. anonae, and C. fasciventris, along with a limited number of B. dorsalis individuals ( Figure 6 ). This generalist attractant behavior reinforces their complementary role in species detection, particularly for less dominant or lure-insensitive tephritids.

Ceratitis cosyra and Z. cucurbitae were well represented in AEZ 1, accounting for over 30% and 25% of total captures, respectively in Ngong (Supplementary material Table S1 ). Notably, this orchard has experienced an intensification of cucurbit cultivation, particularly of sweet melon (Cucumis melo L.). In contrast, C. anonae, C. fasciventris, D. punctatifrons, and D. bivittatus, although widely distributed across sites, exhibited low responsiveness to the studied lures, with capture rates generally below 5% (Supplementary material Table S1 ).