The Mungo Department in the Littoral Region of Cameroon, with Nkongsamba as its administrative capital, spans 3.723 km² and includes 12 municipalities. Nkongsamba, Loum, and Mbanga are the primary urban centers. The region is home to diverse ethnic groups such as the Abo, Bakem, Balong, Baneka, Bareko, Bo, Bong, Keng, Elong, Mancha, and Mbo communities. Mungo experiences a tropical climate, characterized by a three-month dry season and a nine-month rainy season [19] . Its sandy soils, derived from the sandstone parent rock, exhibit high permeability and low water retention. The vegetation is predominantly lowland rainforest. ( Figure 1 )

A semi-structured survey form with 3 headings was submitted to the population. It included information about the respondents (sex, age, ethnic group, profession, etc.), information about the mushrooms (type of mushroom, name in local language, taste, shape, habitat, etc.) and information about other uses and virtues of the mushrooms, factors that encourage their growth and factors that can alter their quality.

The biological material consisted of wild edible mushrooms harvested in the Mungo and two species of Pleurotus commonly grown in Cameroon: Pleurotus pulmonaris and Pleurotus floridanus.

An ethno-mycological survey was conducted among mushroom collectors, vendors, and consumers in Loum, Manjo, Njombé, Nkongsamba, and Souza. Thirty knowledgeable respondents were selected from each town, excluding individuals with no expertise in mushroom identification. Demographic information such as age, sex, ethnicity, occupation, and marital status was collected [7] . Snowball sampling began with market vendors, who facilitated connections to harvesters and distributors. Interviews were conducted in French, English, and occasionally local languages such as Mbo’o and Bagangté.

Mushroom specimens were collected by local harvesters using traditional methods, with efforts made to preserve key morphological features for accurate identification [1] [9] . Fresh samples were described and photographed in situ before being transported to the laboratory for analysis. Some were preserved in 50% ethanol [1] .

Macronutrient composition (moisture, dry matter, crude fiber, protein, lipids, and carbohydrates) was analyzed using standard methods. Moisture and dry matter were determined via thermogravimetry [20] , and crude fiber through digestion

with sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide [21] . Protein content was measured by the Kjeldahl method [22] , and lipids were extracted using a Soxhlet apparatus [23] . Carbohydrate content was derived by difference [22] . Mineral analysis was performed through incineration at 450˚C, followed by atomic absorption spectrometry for Ca, Mg, Fe, and Mn, and flame emission spectrometry for K and Na [22] [24] .

Experiments were conducted in triplicate, with data presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Statistical analyses were performed using STATGRAPHICS Centurion XV version 17.1.12. One-way ANOVA, followed by Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) post-hoc tests, was applied, with significance set at p < 0.05.

The breakdown of survey respondents by site was based on criteria such as gender, age, ethnicity, and profession. The majority of survey respondents were adults (52.28%), with 51.00% of them being women and 49.00% men. The respondents belonged to four main ethnic groups, the most represented of which were the Western High Plateau Forest people (55.55%). Survey respondents were primarily traders (51.63%) or farmers (47.50%) ( Table 1 ).

The data includes respondents from various localities, categorized by gender, age, ethnic group, and profession. The survey respondents were primarily young, adult, and elderly individuals, with men and women from diverse ethnic backgrounds including the Mbo’o, Bakaka, and other local ethnicities. Their professions primarily involved trading, cultivating crops, and driving.

NW = North-West, M = Men, W = Women, T = Traders, Cul = Cultivators, D = Driver.

The people of Mungo described eight varieties of mushrooms based on characteristics such as size, colour, habitat, and fruiting period ( Figure 2 ). In Souza, all 30 interviewees mentioned size, colour, and habitat to describe four edible wild mushrooms. In Njombé, 40.00% of interviewees described two species according to size, recognizing small and large mushrooms. In Loum, 33.33% of interviewees described four mushrooms, including those growing on rotting palm tree trunks, decomposing wood, and during the August and April fruiting periods. In Manjo, 40.63% of interviewees described two mushrooms based on criteria such as colour (black and white) and size (small and large).

In Nkongsamba, 40.00% of interviewees described two mushrooms using colour (white and/or black) and size (small and large) ( Table 2 ). The table outlines the number of mushroom species recognized by respondents from each locality and their respective recognition criteria, such as size, colour, habitat, and fruiting period, as well as the vernacular names used by the ethnic groups. Fields were commonly recognized as the biotopes for mushroom fruiting. In Njombé, fallow fields (33.33%) and fields with termite mounds (33.33%) were considered favourable for mushroom growth. In Manjo, 33.00% of respondents mentioned the presence of termite mounds, while 40.00% noted the abundance of fungi in maize and cassava fields. In Loum, respondents (60.00%) mentioned well-cleaned fields with termite mounds as ideal for fungal growth. In Nkongsamba, some respondents (38.50%) emphasized the presence of fungi in palm groves, particularly under palm trees and nut stalks.

Regarding the appearance and abundance of wild edible mushrooms, respondents in Njombé (80.00%) stated that mushrooms bear fruit from March to May. In Loum, respondents (80.00%) indicated that mushrooms typically appear and are abundant at the beginning of the rains.

The majority of respondents (79.00%) stated that harvesting wild edible mushrooms was simple and easy. They noted that anyone could harvest them as long as they followed the correct technique, which involves carefully pulling the mushroom from the ground using a knife or machete, depending on the size of the

NC = Number of CSCs, FPC = Frequencies as a percentage of citations, VEG = Vernacular Names by Ethnic Group.

mushroom ( Figure 3 ).

For 52.50% of interviewees, the best time to harvest mushrooms depended on the type of mushroom. This period was typically within 24 hours of the appearance of the carpophores, as they deteriorate quickly. However, some respondents indicated that the appearance of carpophores did not necessarily indicate the maturity of the mushrooms. In Njombé, for instance, 50.00% of interviewees recommended harvesting mushrooms 3 to 4 days after the appearance of the carpophores, while 50.00% said that the mushrooms should be left to mature for a week. Factors such as maggots, caterpillars, and ants were cited by interviewees as potential threats to the quality of mushrooms ( Figure 4 ).

Several wild edible mushroom species were identified based on their macroscopic characteristics ( Figure 5 ). These fungi can be described as follows:

- Armillaria heimii Pegler (Physalacriaceae): A saprophytic fungus that grows on dead wood, exhibiting a cespitose lifestyle. The cap, slightly depressed at the center, starts dark brown and lightens to orange-brown, with the center remaining dark. The white lamellae have pinkish hues, and the flesh is thin and creamy white. The cylindrical, hollow stalk is white at the top and brownish-orange at the base, measuring 3 to 5 cm long. The mushroom emits a strong odor ( Figure 5(a) ).

- Auricularia cornea Ehrenb. (Auriculariaceae): This fungus grows in clusters on decaying tree trunks. The ear-shaped cap is smooth, sticky, and has a cartilaginous, elastic consistency. Initially shiny, it turns powdered white. The mushroom lacks lamellae and has no distinct odor. The foot is short or nearly absent ( Figure 5(b) ).

- Marasmiellus inoderma (Berk.) Singer (Marasmiaceae): This fungus grows in groups on decaying tree trunks, including oil palms (Elaeis guineensis). The cap starts convex and then flattens with a hollow center. It has a smooth, powdery coating that changes color from orange to white with a pinkish tint. The spaced, flexible lamellae are white, turning pale yellow as they dry. The fibrous, white flesh has a strong, pleasant odor. The short stalk is sub-central and cylindrical ( Figure 5(c) ).

- Phylloporus rhodoxanthus Schwein. (Bres.) (Boletaceae): A saprophytic fungus growing in clusters on palm stalks. The initially convex cap flattens with age, forming a small depression and developing cracks when ripe. The yellow flesh turns reddish quickly. The stalk is long and yellow from ring to base ( Figure 5(d) ).

- Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quél (Pleurotaceae): This fungus grows in groups on decaying tree trunks. The large, initially convex cap flattens out, and the decurrent lamellae are prominent. The stipe is very short, slightly offset from the center of the cap ( Figure 5(e) ).

- Pleurotus squarrosulus (Mont.) Singer (Pleurotaceae): This species grows in clusters on decaying tree trunks. The cap, depressed in the center, is fleshy and brittle when dry. The flesh is elastic in the cap and leathery in the stem. The decurrent lamellae are arched, tight, and uneven. The central, ringless foot is sometimes stained brown at the base, with a pronounced, agreeable odor ( Figure 5(f) ).

- Termitomyces fragilis L. (Lyophyllaceae): A symbiotic fungus growing in soil with decomposing litter, often under termite nests. The conical cap flattens at maturity, with a small obtuse perforatorium. It has a brownish-grey or greyish-brown surface, darkening at the center with white filamentous streaks. The flesh is white to cream, fibrous in the cap, and leathery in the stem. The cylindrical, central foot is root-shaped ( Figure 5(g) ).

- Termitomyces striatus (Beeli) Heim (Lyophyllaceae): Another symbiotic species, Termitomyces striatus grows on termite mounds. The firm, fleshy cap starts conical and becomes nearly flat before becoming depressed around the perforatorium, which is sharp. The cap has radial tears up to mid-radius, and the coating is separable at the perforatorium. The uneven, tight lamellae are loose. The white flesh is soft in the cap and fibrous in the stem. The central foot is massive, smooth, fibrous, and lacks a ring ( Figure 5(h) ).

The eight species of wild edible mushrooms were not equally known to all the populations across the sites visited. Only the people of Njombé were familiar with all eight species. The same vernacular name was sometimes used to refer to multiple species, and vice versa. Armillaria heimii was known as ‘Linguepo’o’ and/or ‘Po’o’ in Mbouda, while Marasmiellus inoderma was called ‘Po’o’ in Mbouda and ‘Puoh’ in Dschang ( Table 2 ).

The species Auricularia cornea and Pleurotus pulmonarius were found across all sites, with Auricularia cornea being the most widely consumed and known species, appearing in 24.67% of citations. The populations of Souza and Loum were the most frequent consumers of this species. Pleurotus pulmonarius was the second most cited species, appearing in 19.33% of citations, and it was particularly popular among respondents in Souza ( Table 3 ).

This table outlines the number of citations for each species of mushroom by locality, with specific vernacular names provided for each ethnic group.

In Loum, 40.00% of respondents stated that wild edible mushrooms were used in decoctions to treat stomach aches and clear mucus from the kidney girdle. They also noted that broths made with fresh mushrooms were beneficial for diabetics and hypertensives. In Manjo, 43.00% of interviewees suggested that mushrooms should be prioritized in the diet of the elderly, while 12.00% recommended mushrooms for people in the early stages of cancer. In Nkongsamba, 12.50% of respondents believed that mushrooms were beneficial for hypertensive patients, 5.88% for diabetics, and 12.50% for the elderly. Most interviewees (69.00%) reported no undesirable effects from consuming mushrooms, but some mentioned issues such as bloating (18.00%), indigestion (10.00%), and allergies (03.00%) when consumed excessively.

The two species most frequently cited by the populations were Auricularia cornea and Pleurotus pulmonarius. These species were also the most abundant in terms of fresh material harvested, with Auricularia cornea yielding 900 g and Pleurotus pulmonarius 580 g. The nutritional comparison between these wild mushrooms and cultivated species such as Pleurotus pulmonarius and Pleurotus floridanus revealed several differences.

The dry matter content of cultivated mushrooms was significantly higher than in wild species, with cultivated Pleurotus pulmonarius and Pleurotus floridanus showing values of 98.50% and 98.37%, respectively, compared to 88.00% for both wild Pleurotus pulmonarius and Auricularia cornea. Similarly, the fibre content was much higher in cultivated mushrooms (42.00% and 98.50%) than in wild mushrooms (3.57% and 5.60%). In contrast, crude protein content was significantly higher in mushrooms harvested in the wild (16.57% and 5.62%) compared to cultivated mushrooms (2.17% and 2.33%). Table compares the dry matter, fibre, ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate content of wild and cultivated mushroom species, showing significant differences in their nutritional composition ( Table 4 ).

Means with the same letter are not significantly different. NE = Natural environment, C = Cultivated.

The potassium content of cultivated P. pulmonarius and P. floridanus (1957.48 ± 0.03 and 2088.70 ± 0.10 mg/100g) was significantly higher than that of wild P. pulmonarius (1447.25 ± 2.38 mg/100g) and A. cornea (1891.09 ± 0.91 mg) ( Table 5 ).

The micronutrient composition of the wild and cultivated mushrooms showed no trace of copper (Cu) or manganese (Mn). The highest iron (Fe) content (27.06%) was found in Pleurotus pulmonaruis, one of the two cultivated mushrooms, while zinc (Zn) was only found in CSCs harvested in the wild ( Table 6 ).

Means with the same letter are not significantly different.

Means with the same letter are not significantly different.

The populations interviewed in the four towns of the Department of Mungo identified eight species of edible wild mushrooms (CSC), belonging to two trophic groups. These species belong to six families, with Pleurotaceae and Lyophyllaceae being the most represented, each with two species. Onguené et al. [1] also identified these six mushroom families in their work on the inventory of edible wild mushrooms in the rainforests of southern Cameroon. Termitomyces, edible and highly appreciated species from the Lyophyllaceae family, are widely consumed. Similarly, species from the Pleurotus genus are well-known and loved. Edible wild mushrooms fruit on various substrates, including palm trees (Elaeis guineensis), mango (Mangifera indica), avocado (Persea americana), and decomposing Piptadeniastrum africana. Pleurotus squarrosulus and Auricularia cornea colonize freshly felled trees, while Pleurotus pulmonarius prefers decaying wood. Other species grow on the ground, in natural vegetation, and in fields. The genus Termitomyces is found exclusively on termite mounds. Eyi-Ndong et al. [7] found similar results, showing that CSCs from the dense forests of Central Africa, such as Marasmiellus inoderma, grow on decomposing wood. Bâ et al. [25] [26] ; Onguené et al. [1] report that Marasmiellus inoderma is abundant on palm stalks. The people in Mungo recognize the various CSC species, attributing similar importance to all of them. Auricularia cornea, Pleurotus pulmonarius, Termitomyces fragilis, and Termitomyces striatus are highly appreciated by local farmers, who follow these species as soon as they appear and view them as vital food during periods of abundance. Djomene et al. [27] have shown that CSCs are a significant source of nutrition for these populations, and they have learned to control their different fruiting periods. However, some species are eaten in specific villages but not in others. For instance, Marasmiellus inoderma is very popular in Souza but little known elsewhere. Similarly, Phylloporus rhodoxanthus, consumed in Londo Bwapaki (a village in Souza), is considered poisonous in other regions. Ethnomycological knowledge thus varies from one ethnic group to another and is passed down through generations. Although ethnomycological knowledge is more prominent among people aged 40 and above, some younger individuals (15.03%) show interest in growing and gathering edible mushrooms, recognizing them as a potential source of income [28] .

Fungi are an important source of macro- and micronutrients [3] . Nutritional analyses were conducted specifically on Auricularia cornea and Pleurotus pulmonarius, two species that grow on decaying wood, and compared to two cultivated species. The differences in nutritional values between wild and cultivated mushrooms could be attributed to the substrate on which these mushrooms grow. Studies by Guillamân et al. [29] and Teke et al. [3] [30] show that the chemical composition of mushrooms varies depending on the substrate, species, harvest period, and post-harvest storage conditions. Teke et al. [3] found that soil-dwelling fungi tend to have a higher nutrient content than their woody counterparts. Fungi are bioaccumulators, meaning they accumulate minerals and other nutrients as they grow, storing them in their tissues. The bioaccumulation capacity of fungi is influenced by the nature and composition of the substrate [29] . Wild mushrooms harvested from the forest have lower dry matter and carbohydrate content than cultivated mushrooms. However, their protein content is much higher. Edible wild mushrooms are seen as a valuable source of energy and nutrients [11] [31] . The protein content in mushrooms can vary based on the species’ genetic structures, the substrate’s physical and chemical characteristics, and the mushrooms’ developmental stage. The wild mushrooms in this study have higher lipid contents than those studied by Adejumo and Awosanya [31] , Barros et al. [32] , and Teke et al. [11] . In comparison, wild mushrooms harvested from their natural habitat are a richer source of proteins and carbohydrates compared to cultivated mushrooms. Nutritional values can vary not only from species to species but also for the same species, depending on the harvesting conditions and techniques used [33] .

Scientific studies increasingly recognize the role of nutrition in determining chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity, osteoporosis, and neurological disorders [33] - [36] . Deficiencies in elements like potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, iron, and zinc can impair immune function and contribute to diseases like osteoporosis, dementia, atherosclerosis, and cancers. Edible mushrooms are a valuable source of these macro and microelements. Potassium and sodium are abundant in wild edible mushrooms [11] [33] [36] [37] . Potassium is an essential electrolyte, reducing the effects of salt on blood pressure [11] . Phosphorus, abundant in wild mushrooms, contributes to ossification, energy metabolism, and pH regulation in the blood. Wild mushrooms are also richer in calcium compared to cultivated mushrooms, corroborating findings by Adejumo and Awosanya [31] , who noted high calcium levels in Lactarius triviralis and Termitomyces mammiformis. Numerous studies have reported low calcium levels in cultivated mushrooms, regardless of substrate or fruiting stage [11] [38] . Calcium is vital for bone and tooth formation, muscle contraction, blood clotting, and enzyme functioning. Adequate calcium intake can prevent bone demineralization, osteoporosis, and even colorectal cancer [34] [39] . An increased calcium intake during pregnancy can also help prevent eclampsia. Wild edible mushrooms are thus an excellent source of calcium, offering potential benefits for various health conditions. Calcium supplements derived from wild mushrooms have been shown to help lower blood pressure in pregnant women [40] .

Both wild and cultivated mushrooms are rich in iron. However, only wild mushrooms are high in zinc, with levels ranging from 1.46 to 83.5 mg/100g [41] . Zinc plays a crucial role in boosting immune function, and its deficiency can lead to growth delays, hypogonadism, and immune dysfunction, making individuals more susceptible to infections [42] . In many developing countries, zinc deficiency is common due to diets primarily based on cereals, leading to issues such as stunted growth, delayed mental development, and vulnerability to infectious diseases. Correcting zinc deficiency could significantly improve health, particularly in populations relying heavily on cereals. Edible wild mushrooms offer a valuable alternative source of zinc, helping to address these deficiencies.