Recently, a significant decline in proficiency in reading, mathematics, and science has highlighted a concerning global issue: the lack of student engagement and motivation, as indicated in the latest report from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA; OCDE, 2023 ). These deficits are not limited to the academic context but also have significant social repercussions, affecting both individual and collective development ( Lourenço & Paiva, 2024 ).

In a scenario of rapid changes and constant advancements, the education system must go beyond merely transmitting knowledge, positioning itself as a space that promotes adaptation and resilience ( Gianfelice et al., 2024 ). Students’ ability to keep up with the evolution of various fields of knowledge has become an imperative necessity, serving as a key factor in facing the challenges of an ever-changing world.

Thus, understanding and improving academic performance is a central priority, not only to raise educational standards but also to ensure a more balanced and sustainable future for the next generations. By analyzing academic performance from a broad and integrated perspective, it becomes possible to understand the interaction of motivational and cognitive variables in the learning process ( Zimmerman, 2008 ).

When students take an active role in their educational journey, they are able to mitigate the lack of guidance and the limited conceptions about learning that hinder their metacognitive strategies, self-efficacy beliefs, and study effort, reflecting in their academic performance ( Lourenço & Nogueira, 2014 ).

To address the issue of low academic performance, a coordinated effort is needed that integrates metacognitive, motivational, and behavioral strategies within the school environment. SRL thus emerges as a key concept, as it describes the processes through which individuals direct and control their cognitions, emotions, and behaviors to achieve academic goals ( Efklides et al., 2018 ; Lourenço & Paiva, 2025 ; Muis et al., 2016 ; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2011 ).

The theoretical model of Zimmerman & Schunk (2011) suggests that SRL and ER are interconnected, as underlying processes such as executive functions and metacognition play a crucial role in adapting to the environment and managing academic performance. Furthermore, research shows that SRL is an evolving process, becoming more coordinated over time and having a predictive effect on school outcomes, from childhood through to higher education ( Hoyle & Dent, 2018 ; Usher & Schunk, 2018 ; Blair & Razza, 2007 ; Zachariou & Whitebread, 2019 ).

Student autonomy plays a central role in SRL, as it is necessary to promote strategies that encourage active and proactive control of learning. SRL involves the ability to adjust cognition, motivation, and behavior in order to achieve educational goals, allowing students to monitor the effectiveness of their strategies and develop essential skills for high academic performance ( Schunk & Zimmerman, 2023 ; Alliprandini et al., 2023 ).

Students who develop self-regulation skills demonstrate superior academic performance, as they use cognitive and metacognitive processes before, during, and after the learning process ( Arcoverde et al., 2022 ). These students monitor their cognition, motivation, learning environment, and behavior, which allows them to adopt a deeper and more meaningful approach to school tasks ( Silva et al., 2019 ; Figueira & Duarte, 2019 ).

Studies indicate that initial self-regulation skills, often assessed through executive functioning, are associated with greater effortful control, better interpersonal relationships, and greater adaptation to the school context ( Blankson et al., 2017 ; Diamond, 2016 ; Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2009 ). Furthermore, students who implement SRL strategies, such as goal-setting and seeking information, tend to achieve better academic results ( Costa et al., 2022 ; Pereira, 2023 ).

To enhance academic success, it is essential to use approaches that combine metacognitive aspects (goal setting and knowledge activation), motivational aspects (self-efficacy perception and task value), and behavioral aspects (time management and seeking help). These strategies prove effective in promoting active and SRL ( Valle & Connor, 2019 ).

Although the relationship between study methods and academic performance is not always linear, students with higher cognitive competence demonstrate a superior ability for self-regulation, using more effective strategies to discipline behavior and manage study time ( Lourenço & Paiva, 2016 ). As a result, these students become more proficient and achieve better outcomes.

Research in recent decades has highlighted SRL as an essential construct for learning and academic success. Early studies focused on time monitoring and resource management ( Zimmerman, 2023 ), later evolving to understand the role of motivation and self-regulation strategies in academic performance ( Schunk & Zimmerman, 2008 ).

The application of this framework in educational contexts allows for a better understanding of individual differences in academic performance and reinforces the importance of SRL as a determining factor for academic excellence ( Lourenço & Paiva, 2017 ). Thus, future studies should continue to explore the relationship between motivational variables and SRL processes in order to foster more effective teaching tailored to students’ needs ( Wolters & Brady, 2021 ).

The increasingly higher academic demands and growing competitiveness in the educational environment trigger a diverse set of emotions in students, which can significantly influence their performance and academic success ( Cavalcanti et al., 2023 ; Chaves, 2025 ). The need to meet high standards, meet tight deadlines, and face constant evaluations can trigger both positive emotions, such as enthusiasm and satisfaction, and negative emotions, including anxiety, frustration, and fear of failure. These emotions play a central role in students’ engagement in academic activities, affecting their motivation, persistence, and the strategies they use to learn.

Despite this, much of the research has focused on the study of isolated emotions and specific contexts, such as anxiety in evaluation situations, neglecting other emotions equally relevant to learning, such as enthusiasm, boredom, or hope ( Zeidner, 2014 ). Although the focus on academic anxiety is understandable, given its frequency and negative impacts on performance, this approach limits a broader view of the influence of a wide range of emotions on the learning experience.

In recent years, it has become clear that emotions cannot be dissociated from learning processes. Recent studies show that academic emotions affect not only essential cognitive processes, such as attention and memory, but also self-regulation ability, social interaction, and adaptation to the educational context ( McRae & Gross, 2020 ; Postareff et al., 2017 ). Thus, understanding the impact of emotions on learning goes beyond immediate academic outcomes, being also essential for psychological well-being, intrinsic motivation, and the development of socioemotional skills necessary for long-term success.

In addition to influencing academic performance, emotions play a central role in the construction and maintenance of interpersonal relationships ( Chaves, 2025 ). They are an essential component of close relationships, both in their positive and negative impact ( Bowlby, 1982 ; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2005 ). Recent literature highlights the importance of interpersonal closeness, particularly in the quality of the student-teacher relationship, and its impact on students’ academic emotions ( Goetz et al., 2021 ). These findings broaden the scope of research on learning and educational environments, highlighting how the quality of relationships can influence the emotional experience in the academic context.

Following this line of research, contemporary studies demonstrate the relationship between attachment styles and how individuals establish interpersonal connections, as well as their influence on motivation and self-regulation ( Blalock et al., 2015 ; Orehek et al., 2017 ). Different attachment styles are associated with distinct forms of ER, determining how students cope with academic challenges ( Fraley et al., 2006 ). Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of ER becomes essential to understanding its relationship with learning and academic performance.

ER refers to a set of biological, behavioral, and social processes that allow for the modulation, maintenance, or inhibition of emotional experiences in terms of intensity, valence, and duration. This mechanism contributes to adaptation to the demands of the environment and the pursuit of individual goals in a dynamic context ( McRae & Gross, 2020 ). In the academic context, it enables students to mobilize metacognition, motivation, and strategic action in managing their emotions, facilitating learning and adaptation to school demands.

Metacognition in ER translates to the ability to identify and describe emotions, as well as to select appropriate strategies to modulate them throughout the learning process ( Koole & Aldao, 2016 ). Motivation for ER is manifested in students’ efforts to adjust or maintain emotional states, such as curiosity, calmness, and satisfaction, that support their educational goals ( Hutchinson et al., 2021 ). Strategic action, in turn, involves the application of different ER strategies to maximize academic performance ( Hutchinson, 2013 ; Perry et al., 2018 ).

The literature in Developmental Psychology and Education emphasizes that ER is an essential factor for SRL, having a direct impact on academic outcomes ( Cole et al., 2018 ; Strain & D’Mello, 2015 ). Students with effective ER skills demonstrate greater academic well-being, actively engage in educational activities, and achieve superior performance ( Di Leo et al., 2019 ; Richards & Gross, 2000 ).

Although there is still no absolute consensus in the literature regarding the definition of ER, the most widely accepted model is based on the studies of James Gross, a key reference in experimental research in the field ( Gross, 2013 ). According to this model, ER can be understood as the ability to identify which emotions are being experienced, when they occur, and how they are expressed. ER is also guided by individual goals in the surrounding emotional context, serving as a reference to assess the current emotional state and adjust future behaviors ( Kring & Sloan, 2009 ).

According to Gross’s ( Gross, 2013 ) modal model of emotions, ER strategies can be classified into three main categories: situational (situation selection and modification), cognitive (reappraisal and attentional engagement), and behavioral (response modulation), encompassing different approaches ( Moodie et al., 2020 ). Situation selection involves making decisions to avoid contexts that trigger negative emotions or favor situations that promote positive emotions. Webb et al. (2018) highlight that this strategy can contribute to well-being and reduce the experience of negative emotions.

Situation modification refers to altering external aspects of the environment in order to reduce its emotional impact. Although similar to situation selection, this strategy focuses on transforming elements of the emotional context ( Gross, 2013 ).

As for attentional focus, it includes strategies like distraction, which redirect attention to neutral or positive stimuli with the goal of minimizing negative emotions. However, excessive use of this strategy without flexibility can have adverse consequences ( Boelens et al., 2022 ).

Cognitive reappraisal occurs before the full activation of the emotional response and aims to modify the interpretation of a situation to reduce its emotional impact. This strategy is particularly effective when the emotional response is not yet intense ( Moodie et al., 2020 ) and in contexts of uncontrollable stress ( Troy et al., 2013 ).

Finally, emotional response modulation aims to influence the intensity and duration of the emotional response through internal or external strategies. This approach can minimize the effects of emotion on the experiential, behavioral, and physiological levels ( Cutuli, 2014 ). Furthermore, the belief that emotions can be modified is a predictive factor for success in ER ( Gross, 2015 ).

Thus, ER is a multidimensional construct with relevant implications in both clinical and academic contexts. Therefore, future research should continue to explore which strategies are most effective for students’ ER and under what circumstances these are most beneficial. Deepening the understanding of the interaction between ER and learning processes is essential to promote a more balanced academic environment conducive to educational success.

Mindfulness is a mental practice that involves the intentional development of attention and awareness, innate human qualities that are often overlooked in the current context of multitasking. More than a set of techniques, mindfulness is a systematic training of the mind aimed at cultivating full attention—a state of awareness focused on the present moment, deliberately and without judgment ( Kabat-Zinn, 2017 ).

This practice promotes the observation of one’s own thoughts, emotions, and sensations with acceptance, even when unpleasant, avoiding automatic reactions. The two central pillars of mindfulness are self-regulation of attention and openness to experience, allowing the individual to remain present and aware in an intentional and welcoming way ( Cebolla & Demarzo, 2016 ).

Mindfulness can be applied in the classroom as an effective pedagogical intervention to promote both SRL and emotional regulation, contributing to a more focused, calm, and reflective learning environment. The benefits observed in an educational context are evident in the increase in attention and academic performance, the reduction of anxiety and school stress, the improvement of empathy, classroom climate, and interpersonal relationships, and a greater ability to cope with frustration and self-regulate behavior ( Carvalho & Anastácio, 2023 ; Wilson & D’Almeida, 2020 ).

Cognitive reappraisal is a form of cognitive modification that involves reinterpreting a situation with the goal of altering the associated emotional response. This process involves cognitively transforming the perception of negative stimuli, giving them a new, less emotionally charged meaning ( Fortes et al., 2022 ).

As an emotional regulation strategy, cognitive reappraisal has been shown to be an important protective factor in the relationship between negative affect and psychological well-being. Individuals who frequently use this strategy tend to share their emotions more and develop closer and more satisfying interpersonal relationships ( McRae & Gross, 2020 ).

From a clinical perspective, the consistent use of adaptive strategies like cognitive reappraisal often distinguishes healthy individuals from those with mood disorders. Studies indicate that clinical groups with depression or anxiety exhibit lower use of this strategy ( Aldao et al., 2015 ). For this reason, cognitive therapies often focus on training in cognitive reappraisal, with its positive effects on reducing depressive and anxious symptoms being well-documented ( Gross, 2015 ).

In the educational context, cognitive reappraisal can be taught to students through different pedagogical approaches:

These practices can be integrated across the school day, contributing to the development of socioemotional skills that are fundamental to well-being and learning.

Metacognition, understood as the awareness and regulation of one’s own thinking processes, has been widely studied in the field of education due to its central role in SRL ( Zimmerman & Schunk, 2011 ). According to Proust (2013) , although there are divergences between scientific fields regarding the components, contexts of application, and methods, there is consensus on the definition of metacognition as knowledge about knowledge and as a mechanism for regulating cognition, acting as an executive and self-regulatory control, especially in educational contexts.

Recent studies have shown the benefits of integrating metacognition into teaching and learning processes, demonstrating significant improvements in student performance and the development of cognitive and self-regulatory skills ( Avargil et al., 2018 ; Valenzuela, 2019 ). In this sense, metacognition provides a solid theoretical foundation for the implementation of intentional pedagogical interventions, allowing for the construction of metacognitive maps that help students develop a deeper awareness of their mental processes, with an emphasis on reflection.

In the classroom context, several practical strategies can be adopted to promote metacognition, including:

These strategies foster not only content understanding but also the development of autonomy and self-regulation in learning.

In the contemporary view of formative assessment, a conception that strongly values the processes of pedagogical interaction and communication between those involved in the educational action stands out ( Cristofari & Irala, 2022 ). Within this approach, feedback plays a central role, being considered an indispensable component for redirecting the educational action both by the teacher and the student.

According to Arinda and Sadikin (2021) , feedback can be understood as an essential practice of formative assessment, with the goal of reducing the gap between current and desired performance. When used in a dialogical way, feedback significantly contributes to the quality of interactions between teachers and students. In this regard, Pitt and Norton (2017) argue that questions formulated by teacher’s function as clarifying triggers, promoting reflection and the construction of knowledge.

Moreover, Ion et al. (2019) observed that students perceive feedback as an instrument that favors the development of their communication skills. Complementing this perspective, Haughney et al. (2020) emphasize that feedback should be positive, specific, timely, and capable of encouraging active student engagement in the learning process.

Finally, Irala and Mena (2021) reinforce that transformations in assessment practices are not only necessary but inevitable, especially when it is recognized that the learning process is as or more important than the results achieved.

Formative feedback, by focusing on the process and not just the result, helps students improve performance and regulate their own emotions. To do so, the teacher can use clear, specific, and constructive feedback, promote self-assessment, encourage peer feedback, and ask questions that stimulate reflection. In addition, brief individual dialogues that acknowledge students’ emotions strengthen the bond and increase engagement.

Social-emotional learning is an essential educational process for human development that aims to promote social and emotional skills in children, youth, and adults ( Aygün & Taşkın, 2022 ). It involves integrated curricular and relational approaches in the school context to foster personal, academic, and social growth ( Cefai et al., 2021 ). The competencies developed include emotional management, effective communication, empathy, responsible decision-making, and the building of positive and ethical interpersonal relationships ( Jagers et al., 2021 ).

Intervention programs for the development of social-emotional skills have gained prominence due to their proven relevance in promoting health, reducing risk factors, and strengthening protective factors in the educational context ( Coelho et al., 2016 ). According to CASEL (2012) , such programs should start in preschool and extend through to secondary education, integrating: explicit instruction with structured plans and concrete content; integration into daily pedagogical practice; involvement of the entire school community; and the use of informal curriculum. This SEL model structures social-emotional competencies into five key domains: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making ( Walton et al., 2023 ).

Various intervention programs have been developed internationally to promote social-emotional competencies, focusing on objectives such as mindfulness, social support, resilience, and mental health. Among the most recognized are PATHS, FRIENDS, and Second Step, widely implemented in different countries ( Cefai et al., 2021 ).

The RESCUR (Resilience Curriculum for Schools in Europe) targets children aged 4 to 12 and focuses on promoting resilience through six themes: healthy relationships, effective communication, growth mindset, self-determination, strengths, and overcoming challenges ( Cefai et al., 2022 ).

The PROMEHS program aims to strengthen school mental health through socio-emotional education and risk behavior prevention ( Cefai et al., 2021 ). The UPRIGHT program targets adolescents and is based on four pillars: coping, social-emotional learning, self-efficacy, and mindfulness ( Miragall et al., 2020 ).

Other initiatives include SEEVAL, focused on building inclusive schools based on values ( Sonnleitner, 2021 ), and Zippy Friends, aimed at children aged 5 to 7, which teaches strategies for coping with everyday difficulties ( Sloan et al., 2017 ).

In Australia, programs such as KidsMatter Primary and MindMatters promote mental health and school well-being with the involvement of the entire educational community, while in the United Kingdom, the SEAL program offers a comprehensive curriculum focused on the social-emotional development of children and youth ( Goldberg et al., 2019 ). In addition to these, several other programs such as 4Rs, MindUp, RULER, Positive Action, Making Choices, You Can Do It! Education, Responsive Classroom, I Can Problem-Solve, Head Start, and Strong Start show consistent evidence of a positive impact on children’s well-being and academic performance ( Aygün & Taşkın, 2022 ; Jones et al., 2019 ).

Overall, SEL interventions benefit all students, but show more significant effects in children with greater vulnerabilities and needs, improving both behaviors and academic outcomes ( Jones et al., 2019 ).

The interventions analyzed reflect a significant evolution in the conception of teaching and learning, recognizing that academic success depends not only on cognitive mastery but also on emotional balance and the capacity for self-regulation. Interventions such as mindfulness and cognitive reappraisal work on the emotional and behavioral level; metacognition and positive feedback strengthen cognitive self-regulation; while SEL programs integrate these dimensions in a holistic and systemic perspective.

In terms of impact on learning, all contribute to improving academic performance, either through increased attention and motivation or by promoting autonomy and effective study strategies. Regarding emotional well-being, they help reduce symptoms of anxiety, stress, and demotivation, creating favorable conditions for the personal and social development of students.

However, the effectiveness of these interventions depends on contextual factors such as teacher training, school involvement, student profiles, and the continuity of practices. Therefore, the integration of these approaches should be done intentionally, coordinated, and sustainably, with institutional and political-pedagogical support.