After cotton, jute is the second-most important natural fiber crop. It comes from the genus Corchorus in the family Tiliaceae and is grown in two species: Corchorus capsularis L. and C. olitorius L. Bangladesh (80%) primarily cultivates these species in the fertile Ganges Delta to manufacture everyday items
[1]
. India, China, and Bangladesh are the three major producers of jute fibers
[2]
. Jute is the main cash crop of Bangladesh which possesses second position as a single producer and exporter among jute exporting countries and earns foreign exchange by exporting jute and jute goods. Mesta (Hibiscus sabdariffa) produces bast fiber and is used as a substitute for jute. It is also attracting the attention of food and beverage manufacturers and pharmaceutical companies, which believe it has exploitable potential as a natural food product and as a colouring agent to replace some synthetic dyes
[3]
. Bangladesh has a severe scarcity of quality of jute seeds
[4]
. The climatic conditions of Bangladesh are amenable to the production of high-quality jute. In Bangladesh, about 737,770 hectares of land were under jute cultivation, and 82, 46,797 bales of jute were produced with a yield rate of 11.178 bales/ha
[5]
. On the one hand, Mesta produces 1.9 t/ha
[6]
, whereas Kenaf produces 0.08 to 0.09 million t/ha
[7]
. The BADC produces and distributes only 10% - 15% of the 5500 - 6000 tonnes of jute and kenaf seeds that Bangladesh requires annually
[8]
. BADC is the only public sector in the country that produces and distributes jute and very few kenaf seeds to the growers. BADC supplied only 12% - 15% of the total jute and allied fiber seeds
[9]
.
Like all other plants, fiber crops face adverse threats from their environment and other biological organisms. Pathogens that are spread by seeds often infect the capsules or pods of growing jute plants in the field, making the plants produce infected or unhealthy seeds
[10]
[11]
. The fungi that cause these diseases are Macrophomina phaseolina, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Colletotrichum corchori and Rhizoctonia solani. These diseases are stem rot, black band, anthracnose, foot rot, and wilt. The diseases are often spread through jute seeds and affect standing crops, resulting in a loss of yield
[12]
-
[14]
and a decline in fiber quality
[15]
. Colletotrichum corchori is a seed-borne fungus and is found only in C. capsularis. Other seed-borne fungal pathogens are Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium semitectum, Fusarium moniliforme, Curvularia lunata, and Corynespora cassiicola on jute seeds. These fungi cause seed rot and infection to young seedlings
[16]
. Besides, Aspergillus and Penicillium reduce the germination percentage, which is frequently associated with stored jute seeds. Another study by Ali et al. (2015)
[10]
examined how three types of fungi—M. phaseolina, B. theobromae and C. corchori infect jute through seeds. They found that more seed-borne infections led to more disease development in the field. There were several techniques which was used on the researcher to detect seed-borne fungi of jute. Mesta demonstrates greater adaptability to unfavorable soil and climatic conditions; however, it is susceptible to several diseases, notably foot and stem rot caused by Phytophthora parasitica, Sclerotinia stem rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), leaf blight (Phyllosticta hibiscicola), and yellow vein mosaic. Kenaf is vulnerable to several diseases, including fungus, bacteria, nematodes, and viruses. Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotium rolfsii, Phytophthora parasitica and Ralstonia solanacearum were pathogens previously identified in studies of kenaf disease
[17]
.
The study’s goals to find the seed-borne fungi that are associated with jute and related fiber crop seeds using different variety under lab techniques and to determine the rate of transmission of seed borne fungi from seed to seedling.
2. Materials and Methods2.1. Experimental Site and Period
The experiment was carried out at the seed pathology laboratory and the net house of the Plant Pathology Department, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka, from June 2018 to January 2019.
2.2. Sources of Seed Sample
Nine common seed samples (100 g of each) from the Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI) in Manik Mia Avenue, Dhaka-1207. They were V1 = Jute cvl-1, V2 = BJRI deshi jute-5 (0-795), V3 = BJRI deshi jute-6 (0-3820), V4 = BJRI deshi jute-7 (BJC-2142), V5 = BJRI deshi jute-8 (BJC-2197), V6 = Kenaf (HC-2), V7 = Kenaf (HC-95), V8 = BJRI Kenaf-4 and V9 = Mesta (HS-24).
The selections were made considering their extensive cultivation and significance to the economy. The observed varieties demonstrated vulnerability to the fungal disease, presenting notable disease symptoms in field conditions. The study encompassed various varieties to identify the most resistant or highest-performing option.
2.3. Preparation of Seed Sample
The collected seed samples were kept in a plastic container labeled properly and preserved in the refrigerator at 50˚C till the samples were used for conducting respective research. Working seed samples were extracted from the preserved seed samples, as required. The entire procedure was maintained under the Rules of ISTA
[18]
. Seventy-five seeds were randomly selected 75 seeds from the seed sample, which included three replications. The seeds were germinated on top of three layers of Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The filter papers were soaked in water and placed at the bottom of a 9-cm-diameter plastic petri dish; thereafter, 25 seeds were placed on top of the paper. Evaporation of water was minimized by tightly fitting the lids of the petri dishes. The Petri dishes were placed inside the incubator and maintained the temperature at 30˚C for five days. Seeds that produced both plumules and radicals after incubation as germinating seeds. Express the result as a percentage.
2.4. Detection on Seed-Borne Fungi
Various methods (
Figure 1
) for seed health analysis was used to detect seed-borne fungi in seed samples. The fungal pathogen growth was examined on the incubated seeds under the stereo microscope and identified it by its distinctive characteristics. Recorded the disease incidence and calculated it as a percentage. In case of complexity during identification, temporary slides were prepared to identify the fungi species level according to
[19]
-
[22]
.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of methodology of isolation techniques.
The blotter method is a simple and inexpensive way to detect seed-borne fungi that respond by sporulation
[23]
. In this method, 75 seeds were picked at random from each sample and put on three layers of Whatman No. 1 filter paper that had been soaked in water in plastic petri dishes. The seeds were then kept at 20˚C ± 2˚C and exposed to light for 12 hours at a time. After 7 days of incubation, petri plates containing incubated seeds were observed under a stereo-binocular microscope at 20× magnification. The germination percentage of each fungal colony on germinated seeds was recorded by using the identification key, with the assistance of a literature review and expert consultation. The results were expressed as a percentage (
Plate 1(a)
).
Greater numbers of fungal colonies can be formed by Agar plate method
[24]
. The agar media most commonly used for incubation tests are the non-selective potato dextrose agar and malt extract agar
[24]
-
[26]
. In this method, 50 seeds were randomly taken from each sample, dipped in 3% Clorox for 1 minute, washed 3 times, and placed in glass petri dishes containing water agar media in an air laminar flow chamber. After the medium had hardened, 25 seeds of each variety were spread out evenly on two water agar plates. The plates were then kept at 20˚C ± 2˚C and exposed to light for 12 hours at a time. After being incubated for 7 days, the seeds were looked at through a stereo microscope to find pathogens carried by the seeds on the surfaces of jute and related fiber seeds. A temporary slide was prepared and examined under the compound microscope when it was difficult to identify the pathogen under the stereo microscope with the help of literature review and expert consultation. The number of germinated seeds was recorded, along with the seed-borne fungi after seven days of incubation. The results were expressed in percentage terms (
Plate 1(b)
).
In this method, at first, agar media was prepared and then placed in a test tube at 1/3 of this test tube’s diameter in a laminar airflow chamber. One seed from each type of jute and allied fiber crop was placed in a test tube three times. The seeds were then incubated at 20˚C ± 2˚C for 12 hours with a cycle of near ultraviolet (NUV) light and darkness. After being incubated for 7 days, test tubes with seeds in them were looked at through a stereomicroscope to look for pathogens carried by the seeds on the surface of the jute seeds. In case of difficulty identifying under the stereomicroscope, a temporary slide was prepared and examined under the compound microscope. Then, the identification procedure was done with the help of a literature review and expert consultation. The number of germinated seeds was recorded, along with the seed-borne fungi, after seven days of incubation. The results were expressed in percentage terms (
Plate 1(c)
).
It was tested in the net house of the Plant Pathology Department to see how fungi affect germination, the number of seedling diseases or infections, and the ability to find rotting seeds that won’t sprout. The test was conducted by placing sterilized sand in plastic trays and covering them with a polythene sheet for 24 hours. The polythene sheet was removed after 24 hours and left it open for seven days to allow the formaldehyde gas to evaporate. Three trays was used for each seed sample of the deshi jute, kenaf, and mesta varieties, filling them with sterilized sand and moistening them with water. 30 seeds were extracted from each seed sample, then sowed 10 seeds in a line in each tray for three replications. Data on germination, normal seedlings, abnormal seedlings, and diseased seedlings were recorded after 14 days of sowing following the International Rules for Seed Testing
[27]
with some modifications. The modification involved separating the diseased seedlings from the abnormal seedlings and counting them separately. The results were expressed in percentages (
Plate 1(d)
).
Plate 1. Different methods for the isolation of seed-borne fungi and detection of seedling mortality of jute and allied fiber crops.2.5. Seedling Incidence (%)To estimate the percent seedling incidence using the following formula <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141534-28">
[28]
</xref>:
<math display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mrow>
<mtext>
Seedling incidence
</mtext>
<mo>
=
</mo>
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mtext>
Number of diseased seedling
</mtext>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mtext>
Number of total seedlings observed
</mtext>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
<mo>
×
</mo>
<mn>
100
</mn>
</mrow>
</math>2.6. Management of Associated Seed-Borne FungiAfter observing the seed health results in different methods among fiber crops, three susceptible varieties from each fiber crop were selected for the management of seed-borne disease in the pot. Two treatments, namely Trichoderma sp., Autostin, with two controls (without sterilized soil and soil sterilization) at their recommended dose 2 - 3 g per kg seed for autostin and commercial bio-derma powder 5 g/10 g seed was used for Trichoderma sp. against the seed-borne fungal pathogens were tested. The requisite amount of each treatment and seeds from each sample was taken in a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask and was shaken mechanically for 10 minutes for proper coating of the treatments. The Standard Blotter <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141534-19">
[19]
</xref> was used to compare the treated and untreated seeds 24 hours later to see how well the seed treated ingredients worked.2.7. Statistical AnalysisThe obtained data were subjected to statistical analyses by MSTATC software, and mean comparisons were done using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). The data were modified when necessary. The least significant differences (LSD) at the 5% level of probability were used to separate the means within the parameters <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141534-29">
[29]
</xref>.3. Results3.1. Fungi Detection by Blotter Paper Method
Significant variation was found in seed germination, seed infection, seedling infection, and post-emergence mortality depending on seed tiers, different varieties of jute, and the source of collection. V7 (kenaf HC-95) recorded the highest percentage of seed germination (97.67%), which was identical to the V6, V8 and V3 varieties (
Table 1
). On the other hand, variety V9 (Mesta HS-24) recorded the lowest percentage of seed germination (81.33%). Seed infection varied significantly, while V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8) scored the highest percentage of seed infection (46.67%) and the lowest (3.33%) was recorded in V7 (Kenaf (HC-95)) and V8 (BJRI Kenaf-4).
The result revealed that no seedling infection (0%) was found in fiber crop varieties V1 (Jute cvl-1), V3 (BJRI deshi jute-6), V7 (Kenaf (HC-95)), and V8 (BJRI Kenaf-4), respectively. Conversely, fiber crop variety V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8) exhibited the highest percentage of seedling infection (36.67%). Variety V1 (Jute cvl-1) did better; at 5, 7, and 9 DAS, no post-emergence mortality of seedlings was seen. However, variety V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8) had the highest percentage of post-emergence mortality among seedlings (10.00%, 16.67%, and 36.67%, respectively).
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141534-"></xref>Table 1. Varietal performance of jute and allied fiber crops on percent germination, seed infection, seedling infection, post emergence mortality in blotter paper method.
Varieties
Germination (%)
Seed infection (%)
Seedling infection (%)
Post emergence mortality (%)
5 DAS
7 DAS
9 DAS
V1
93.00b
10.00d
0.00c
0.00c
0.00e
0.00
V2
92.00bc
6.67e
3.33b
3.33b
3.33d
3.33d
V3
96.67a
10.00d
0.00c
0.00c
0.00e
0.00e
V4
81.33e
6.67e
6.67b
0.00c
6.67b
10.67c
V5
91.00c
46.67a
36.67a
10.00a
16.67a
36.67a
V6
96.67a
20.00c
6.67b
3.33b
6.67c
10.00b
V7
97.67a
3.33f
0.00c
3.33b
0.00e
3.33d
V8
96.67a
3.33f
0.00c
0.00c
3.33d
3.33d
V9
87.33d
33.33b
3.33b
0.00c
3.33d
6.67c
CV (%)
3.48
12.53
15.43
13.23
21.43
21.33
LS
**
**
*
*
*
**
Column having common letter(s) do not different from each other as adjusted by DMRT. LS = Level of significance; CV = Coefficient of variation, *= Significant at 5% level of Probability; **= Significant at 1% level of Probability. V1 = Jute cvl-1, V2 = BJRI deshi jute-5, V3 = BJRI deshi jute-6, V4 = BJRI deshi jute-7, V5 = BJRI deshi jute-8, V6 = Kenaf (HC-2), V7 = Kenaf (HC-95), V8 = BJRI Kenaf-4 and V9 = Mesta (HS-24).
Altogether, five fungi genera (Colletotrichum corchori, Fusarium spp., Aspergillus spp., Botryodiplodia theobromae and Macrophomina phaseolina) were identified in nine fiber crop varieties (
Table 2
). Of these, Colletotrichum corchori was the most predominant fungus recorded in V4 (BJRI deshi jute-7), followed by V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8), V6 (Kenaf (HC-2)), and V9 (Mesta (HS-24)), respectively (
Plate 2
). Fiber crop variety cvl-1 was found to be the most protective against fungal pathogens, and BJRI Deshi Jute-8 was found to be the most susceptible, followed by Mesta (HS-24).
Six fungi genera were found in nine different types of fiber crops. These are Colletotrichum corchori, Curvularia lunata, Fusarium spp., Aspergillus spp., Macrophomina phaseolina, and Botryodiplodia theobromae. The variety V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8) revealed Colletotrichum corchori as the most prevalent fungus species (
Plate 3
). Kenaf (HC-95) showed the most protection against fungal pathogens and found the lowest total fungi (1.00) (
Table 4
). The result revealed that variety V2 (BJRI deshi jute-5) was the most susceptible variety against the fungal pathogen, with V4 (BJRI deshi jute-7) and V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8).
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141534-"></xref>Table 4. Varietal reaction of jute and allied fiber crops on prevalence of seed-borne fungi in agar plate method.
Varieties
Total fungi (no.)
Mean (%)
Colletotrichum corchori
Curvularia lunata
Macrophomina
phaseolina
Fusarium spp.
Aspergillus spp.
V1
3.33c
8.33d
0.00b
0.00b
72.22a
19.44f
V2
5.67a
34.44b
0.00b
0.00b
35.56d
30.00e
V3
2.33d
27.78c
0.00b
0.00b
27.78e
44.44c
V4
5.67a
35.56b
0.00b
5.56a
28.89e
30.00e
V5
5.33a
43.33a
0.00b
0.00b
51.11c
5.56h
V6
4.33b
8.33d
6.67a
0.00b
46.67c
38.33d
V7
1.00e
0.00e
0.00b
0.00b
33.33d
66.67a
V8
2.67cd
0.00e
0.00b
0.00b
50.00c
50.00b
V9
2.67cd
22.22c
0.00b
0.00b
66.67b
11.11g
LS
**
**
*
*
**
**
CV (%)
14.23
24.40
42.35
13.54
35.45
32.34
Column having common letter(s) do not different from each other as adjusted by DMRT. LS = Level of significance; CV = Coefficient of variation, *= Significant at 5% level of Probability; **= Significant at 1% level of Probability. V1 = Jute cvl-1, V2 = BJRI deshi jute-5, V3 = BJRI deshi jute-6, V4 = BJRI deshi jute-7, V5 = BJRI deshi jute-8, V6 = Kenaf (HC-2), V7 = Kenaf (HC-95), V8 = BJRI Kenaf-4 and V9 = Mesta (HS-24).
Plate 3. Stereo microscopic view of (a) Colletotrichum corchori in seedling and compound microscopic view of setae of (b) C. corchori; (c) Aspergillus niger; (d) Macrophomina phaseolina; (e) Curvularia lunata.3.3. Fungi Detection by Test Tube MethodSignificant differences were discovered as a result of post-emergence mortality, seed infection, seedling infection, and variances in seed germination (<xref ref-type="table" rid="table5">
Table 5
</xref>). Germination of seeds varied significantly while the highest percentage of seed germination (100%) was recorded in fiber crop variety V<sub>1</sub> (Jute cvl-1), V<sub>3</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-6) and V<sub>4</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-7), respectively and the lowest percentage of seed germination (86.67%) was recorded in fiber crop variety V<sub>5</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-8). The highest percentage of seed infection (93.33 %) was recorded in fiber crop variety V<sub>5</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-8) and V<sub>6</sub> (Kenaf (HC-2)), respectively conversely, V<sub>3</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-6) and V<sub>4</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-7) showed the lowest percentage of seed infection (0%). Result revealed that the highest percentage of seedling infection (100%) was found on V<sub>4</sub> (BJRI jute-7) and V<sub>5</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-8), respectively. On the contrary, the lowest percentage of seedling infection (86.67%) was recorded on V<sub>3</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-6).The fiber crop variety V<sub>5</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-8) had the highest percentage of post-emergence mortality in seedlings (90%, 93.33%, and 100%) at 5, 7, and 9 DAS, respectively. The fiber crop variety V<sub>7</sub> (Kenaf (HC-95)) had the lowest percentage of post-emergence mortality among seedlings (73.33%, 83.33%, and 86.67%) at the same DAS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141534-"></xref>Table 5. Varietal reaction of jute and allied fiber crops on germination, seed infection, seedling infection, post emergence mortality (%) on test tube method.
<table class="MsoTableGrid custom-table" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">Varieties</p></td>
<td rowspan="2" class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">Germination (%)</p></td>
<td rowspan="2" class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">Seed infection (%)</p></td>
<td rowspan="2" class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">Seedling infection (%)</p></td>
<td class="custom-bottom-td acenter" width="11.76%" colspan="3"><p style="text-align:center">Post emergence mortality (%)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="custom-bottom-td custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">5 DAS</p></td>
<td class="custom-bottom-td custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">7 DAS</p></td>
<td class="custom-bottom-td custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">9 DAS</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>1</sub></p></td>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">100.00a</p></td>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">60.00c</p></td>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33b</p></td>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">83.33c</p></td>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">96.67a</p></td>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">96.67b</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>2</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">40.00d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">80.00d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33c</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>3</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">100.00a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">0.00e</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">86.67c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">80.00d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">90.00b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">90.00d</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>4</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">100.00a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">0.00e</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">100.00a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">83.67b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">86.33c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">100.00a</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>5</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">86.67d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">100.00a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">90.00a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">100.00a</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>6</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">80.00d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">86.67b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33c</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>7</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">83.33b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">73.33f</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">83.33c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">86.67e</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>8</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">96.67b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">86.67b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">66.67g</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">86.67b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">86.67e</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>9</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">96.67b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">86.67b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">90.00b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">76.67e</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">93.33a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">96.67b</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">LS</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">*</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">**</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">*</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">*</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">*</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">*</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">CV (%)</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">6.98</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">11.93</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">11.80</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">20.36</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">16.43</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">13.54</p></td>
</tr>
</table>Column having common letter(s) do not different from each other as adjusted by DMRT. LS = Level of significance; CV = Coefficient of variation. *= Significant at 5% level of Probability; **= Significant at 1% level of Probability. V<sub>1</sub> = Jute cvl-1, V<sub>2</sub> = BJRI deshi jute-5, V<sub>3</sub> = BJRI deshi jute-6, V<sub>4</sub> = BJRI deshi jute-7, V<sub>5</sub> = BJRI deshi jute-8, V<sub>6</sub> = Kenaf (HC-2), V<sub>7</sub> = Kenaf (HC-95), V<sub>8</sub> = BJRI Kenaf-4 and V<sub>9</sub> = Mesta (HS-24).Prevalence of Seed-Borne FungiSome of the seeds with the fewest seed-borne fungi were from V<sub>2</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-5), V<sub>3</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-6) and V<sub>4</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-7). Seeds from V<sub>7</sub> (Kenaf HC-95) and V<sub>8</sub> (BJRI Kenaf-4) had the fewest (1.33% and 1.33 percent, respectively) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="table6">
Table 6
</xref>). Identified four fungi genera (Colletotrichum corchori, Fusarium spp., Aspergillus spp., and Macrophomina phaseolina) in nine fiber crop varieties. Of these, Colletotrichum corchori was the most predominant fungus recorded in variety V<sub>5</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-8) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141534-#p4">
Plate 4
</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141534-"></xref>Table 6. Varietal reaction of jute and allied fiber crops on the prevalence of seed-borne fungi on test tube method.
Varieties
Total fungi (no.)
Mean (%)
Colletotrichum corchori
Macrophomina phaseolina
Fusarium spp.
Aspergillus spp.
V1
1.67b
16.67d
0.00c
33.33c
50.00b
V2
2.00a
16.67dd
33.33b
50.00b
0.00d
V3
2.00a
16.67d
0.00c
33.33c
50.00b
V4
2.00a
33.33c
16.67a
33.33c
16.67c
V5
1.67b
83.33a
0.00c
33.33c
0.00d
V6
1.67b
0.00e
0.00c
33.33c
66.67a
V7
1.33c
0.00e
0.00c
83.33a
16.67c
V8
1.33c
0.00e
16.67a
83.33a
0.00d
V9
1.67b
50.00b
0.00c
33.33c
16.67c
LS
*
**
*
**
**
CV (%)
6.12
31.23
22.54
22.32
21.56
Column having common letter(s) do not different from each other as adjusted by DMRT. LS = Level of significance; CV = Coefficient of variation, *= Significant at 5% level of Probability; **= Significant at 1% level of Probability. V1 = Jute cvl-1, V2 = BJRI deshi jute-5, V3 = BJRI deshi jute-6, V4 = BJRI deshi jute-7, V5 = BJRI deshi jute-8, V6 = Kenaf (HC-2), V7 = Kenaf (HC-95), V8 = BJRI Kenaf-4 and V9 = Mesta (HS-24).
Plate 4. Compound microscopic view of (a) setae of Colletotrichum corchori; (b) Aspergillus niger; (c) Fusarium spp. and (d) Macrophomina phaseolina in test tube method.3.4. Fungi Detection by Growing on Test MethodThis approach revealed significant differences in seed germination, seed infection, seedling infection, and post-emergence mortality, as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="table7">
Table 7
</xref>. The highest percentage of seed germination (84%) was recorded in fiber crop variety V<sub>7</sub> (Kenaf (HC-95)), and the lowest percentage of seed germination (24%) was recorded in V<sub>9</sub> (Mesta (HS-24)). Fiber crop variety V<sub>5</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-8) was performed with the highest percentage of seed infection (66.67%), while the lowest percentage of seed infection (6.67%) was recorded in fiber crop variety V<sub>7</sub> (Kenaf (HC-95)). The results showed that fiber crop variety V<sub>5</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-8) recorded the highest percentage of seedling infection (40%). On the other hand, the V<sub>8</sub> (BJRI Kenaf-4) variety showed the lowest percentage of seedling infection (20%).It was found that at 5, 7, and 9 DAS, the V<sub>5</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-8) variety had the highest percentage of seedlings dying after they sprouted (20%, 23.33%, and 40%), while the V<sub>8</sub> (BJRI Kenaf-4) cultivar had the lowest percentage of seedlings dying after sprouting (0%, 13.33%, and 20%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141534-"></xref>Table 7. The varietal reaction of jute and allied fiber crops on percent germination, seed infection, seedling infection, post emergence mortality on growing on test method.
<table class="MsoTableGrid custom-table" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">Varieties</p></td>
<td rowspan="2" class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">Germination (%)</p></td>
<td rowspan="2" class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">Seed infection (%)</p></td>
<td rowspan="2" class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">Seedling infection (%)</p></td>
<td class="custom-bottom-td acenter" width="11.76%" colspan="3"><p style="text-align:center">Post emergence mortality (%)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="custom-bottom-td custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">5 DAS</p></td>
<td class="custom-bottom-td custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">7 DAS</p></td>
<td class="custom-bottom-td custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">9 DAS</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>1</sub></p></td>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">75.00c</p></td>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">20.00b</p></td>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">33.33b</p></td>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">13.33b</p></td>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">23.33a</p></td>
<td class="custom-top-td acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">36.67b</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>2</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">68.67d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">20.00b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">23.33d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">6.67d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">20.00b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">23.33e</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>3</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">81.00ab</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">10.00cd</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">23.33d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">10.00c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">13.33d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">16.67g</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>4</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">66.33d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">16.67bc</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">26.67c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">6.67d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">20.00b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">26.67d</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>5</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">77.33bc</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">66.67a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">40.00a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">20.00a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">23.33a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">40.00a</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>6</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">67.33d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">23.33b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">33.33b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">10.00c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">23.33a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">33.33c</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>7</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">84.00a</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">6.67d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">26.67c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">3.33e</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">20.00b</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">26.67d</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>8</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">75.33c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">16.67bc</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">20.00e</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">0.00f</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">13.33d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">20.00f</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">V<sub>9</sub></p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">24.00e</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">10.00cd</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">23.33d</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">10.00c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">16.67c</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">23.33e</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">LS</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">*</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">**</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">**</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">**</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">**</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">*</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">CV (%)</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">4.53</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">20.38</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">18.23</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">68.47</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">45.45</p></td>
<td class="acenter" width="11.76%"><p style="text-align:center">22.54</p></td>
</tr>
</table>Column having common letter(s) do not different from each other as adjusted by DMRT. LS = Level of significance; CV = Coefficient of variation, *= Significant at 5% level of Probability; **= Significant at 1% level of Probability. V<sub>1</sub> = Jute cvl-1, V<sub>2</sub> = BJRI deshi jute-5, V<sub>3</sub> = BJRI deshi jute-6, V<sub>4</sub> = BJRI deshi jute-7, V<sub>5</sub> = BJRI deshi jute-8, V<sub>6</sub> = Kenaf (HC-2), V<sub>7</sub> = Kenaf (HC-95), V<sub>8</sub> = BJRI Kenaf-4 and V<sub>9</sub> = Mesta (HS-24).Prevalence of Seed-Borne FungiThe prevalence of total seed-borne fungi detection varied significantly depending on the seeds of jute and allied fiber crop varieties. The highest total number of seed-borne fungi (3.67) was recorded in V<sub>5</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-8), while the lowest total seed-borne fungi (1.67) was recorded in seeds obtained from V<sub>4</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-7) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="table8">
Table 8
</xref>). Four fungi genera (Colletotrichum corchori, Fusarium spp., Aspergillus spp., and Botryodiplodia theobromae) were identified in nine fiber crop varieties. Colletotrichum corchori emerged as the most prevalent fungus in variety V<sub>5</sub> (BJRI deshi jute-8).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141534-"></xref>Table 8. Varietal reaction of jute and allied fiber crops on prevalence of seed-borne fungi on growing on test method.
Varieties
Total fungi (no.)
Mean (%)
Botryodiplodia theobromae
Colletotrichum corchori
Fusarium spp.
V1
2.67d
0.00b
44.44b
50.00b
V2
3.33b
0.00b
33.33d
50.00b
V3
2.33e
0.00b
50.00b
50.00b
V4
1.67f
11.11a
11.11f
77.78a
V5
3.67a
0.00b
63.89a
19.44e
V6
2.67d
0.00b
38.89c
27.78d
V7
2.67d
0.00b
11.11f
50.00b
V8
2.67d
0.00b
0.00g
38.89c
V9
3.00c
0.00b
16.67e
27.78d
LS
*
*
**
**
CV (%)
3.54
6.43
60.43
21.33
Column having common letter(s) do not different from each other as adjusted by DMRT. LS= Level of significance; CV= Coefficient of variation, *= Significant at 5% level of Probability; **= Significant at 1% level of Probability. V1 = Jute cvl-1, V2 = BJRI deshi jute-5, V3 = BJRI deshi jute-6, V4 = BJRI deshi jute-7, V5 = BJRI deshi jute-8, V6 = Kenaf (HC-2), V7 = Kenaf (HC-95), V8 = BJRI Kenaf-4 and V9 = Mesta (HS-24).
However, there were six different types of fungi found in jute and its fiber seeds. They were Aspergillus sp., Botryodiplodia theobromae, Fusarium oxysporum, Macrophomina phaseolina and Curvularia lunata. Of these, Curvularia lunata was the least common (only found on agar plates), while C. corchori was the most common (found in all methods). Most fungi, seed infections and post-emergence deaths happened in Variety V5 (
Plate 4(a)
,
Plate 4(c)
,
Plate 4(d)
). Variety V9 followed this, while variety V7 experienced the least fungi, seed infections and post-emergence mortality across all tests (
Figure 2
).
Figure 2. Prevalence of fungi against all fiber varieties in different methods.
3.5. Management of Associated Seed-Borne Fungi by Different Treatments in Pot
Table 9
displays the percent seedling incidence of fiber crops for controlling associated seed borne fungi in pot. The highest, 82.30%, 80%, and 65.67% seedling incidence was found in control (without sterilized soil) in varieties V5, V6 and V9 respectively. Whereas the lowest incidence (24.14%, 21.29%, and 42.19%) was found in the Autostin treated seed in pot among all selected varieties. On the other hand, control (with sterilized soil) and Trichoderma treated seed resulted in statistically similar seedling infection.
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141534-"></xref>Table 9. Effect on different seed treatments on seedling incidence (%) among three selected varieties of fiber crops.
Treatments
% Seedling incidence
V5
V6
V9
Trichoderma sp.
52.17b
56.20c
61.00b
Autostin
24.14c
21.29d
42.19c
Control (sterilized soil)
50.33b
76.00b
61.00b
Control (without sterilized soil)
82.30a
80.00a
65.67a
LS
**
**
**
CV (%)
4.08
0.91
2.01
3.6. Percent Prevalence of Fungal Isolate, Seed Infection, Seedling and Post Emergence Mortality in Jute and Allied Fiber Crops
Percent prevalence of fungal isolate, seed infection, seedling and post emergence mortality in jute and allied fiber crops among all methods (Blotter paper method, Agar plate method, Test tube method and Growing on test method) showed variations which are presented in
Figure 3
.
Figure 3. Percent prevalence of fungal isolate, seed infection, seedling and post emergence mortality in jute and allied fiber varieties among all methods. (A) Blotter paper method, (B) Agar plate method, (C) Test tube method, (D) Growing on test method.
4. Discussion
Jute, commonly known as the golden fiber of Bangladesh, has a great influence on socio-economic importance. Bangladesh supplies about 70% of jute and fiber crops, which are related products to the global market
[30]
. Despite its importance, it is infected severely by many seed-borne pathogens, which can have a detrimental influence on jute and fiber production. Seed-borne diseases are crucial for jute and fiber crops. Stem rot, black band, and anthracnose are all fungal diseases that are often spread through jute seeds. They were caused by Macrophomina phaseolina, Botryodiplodia theobromae and Colletotrichum corchori, respectively.
Nine varieties of different jute and allied fiber crops were used in this research work. The blotter paper method revealed that V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8) had the highest number of seed-borne fungi (7.00). Five fungal genera: Colletotrichum corchori, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Macrophomina phaseolina, Fusarium spp. and Aspergillus spp. were found in this study. These identified fungal genera were from nine different fiber crop varieties. The most common fungus found in these varieties was Colletotrichum corchori in V4 (BJRI deshi jute-7), V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8), V6 (Kenaf HC-2) and V9 (Mesta HS-24). Similar work was done in Haider et al.
[31]
(1992) and found 12 genera of fungi in jute seed, where Colletotrichum corchori and Sclerotium rolfsii were the most common.
In the agar plate method, the highest total number of seed-borne fungi (5.67) was recorded in the V4 (BJRI deshi jute-7) variety and again, five fungal genera, viz. Colletotrichum corchori, Macrophomina phaseolina, Curvularia lunata, Fusa-rium spp. and Aspergillus spp. were identified. Among these, Colletotrichum corchori was the most prime fungus recorded in varieties V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8) and V6 (Kenaf HC-2), respectively. It is similar to
[32]
where the highest (96.00%) and the lowest germination (73.00%) were recorded in case of 0% and 25% initial seed-borne infection of C. corchori, respectively. Corresponding results were found at
[13]
[33]
and
[34]
.
In test tube method, the highest total number of seed borne fungi (2.00) were recorded in V2 (BJRI deshi jute-5), V3 (BJRI deshi jute-6) and V4 (BJRI deshi jute-7), respectively while the lowest total seed borne fungi (1.33) were recorded in seeds obtained from V7 (Kenaf HC-95) and V8 (BJRI kenaf-4), respectively. Entirely four fungi genus (Colletotrichum corchori, Fusarium spp., Aspergillus spp., Macrophomina phaseolina) were identified among these; Colletotrichum corchori was the most prevalent fungus recorded in variety V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8). Similarly, a researcher conducted on health quality of jute seeds and the transformation behavior of Colletotrichum corchori from seed to plant to seed in which Colletotrichum corchori was found predominant and revealed that % germination, % post-emergence infection, % germination failure and % seedling infection varied significantly
[35]
.
In growing on test method, V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8) variety showed the highest total number of seed borne fungi (3.67) whereas the lowest total seed borne fungi (1.67) were found on V4 (BJRI deshi jute-7) variety. Again four fungi genus (Colletotrichum corchori, Fusarium spp., Aspergillus spp. and Botryodiplodia theobromae) were identified in this method among these, Colletotrichum corchori was the most predominant fungus recorded in variety V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8). Fakir et al. (1993)
[36]
reported that Botryodiplodia theobromae, Colletotrichum corchori and Macrophomina phaseolina were responsible for causing black band, anthracnose and stem rot, respectively and most widely distributed in the country. Transmission of the major seed-borne diseases including stem rot caused by Macrophomina phaseolina, black band caused by Botryodiplodia theobromae and anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum corchori from seed to seedlings, revealed that germination of the seeds was found to decrease with the increase of the seed borne infection and resulted significantly higher amount of disease development
[36]
.
The highest percentage of post-emergence mortality of seedling (20.00%, 23.33% and 40.00%) was recorded on variety V5 (BJRI deshi jute-8) and the lowest (0%, 13.33% and 20%) was found on variety V8 (BJRI Kenaf-4) at noted down at 5, 7 and 9 DAS. Begum et al. (2025) also conducted the same experiment on nemic and viral disease of jute and allied fiber crops and found that BJRI Kenaf-3 and BJRI deshi jute-7 perform the best against this disease
[37]
. An integrated control of seedling mortality of lentil caused by Sclerotium rolfsii in BSMRAU, Gazipur, was conducted by
[38]
.
5. Conclusions
There were six types of fungi found in fiber seed. They were Colletotrichum corchori, Fusarium oxysporum, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Macrophomina phaseo-lina, Curvularia lunata, and Aspergillus sp. All methods found C. corchori as the most common type. In all methods, V5 had the highest rate of percent fungi, seed infection, seedling infection, and post-emergence mortality of all the fiber crop varieties. V9 had the lowest rate of all of these things. V7 Kenaf (HC-95) was the best variety that had a high germination percentage and low seed mortality, among others, whereas V5 and V9 had the lowest germination and high mortality. Autistin-treated selected fiber crops showed the best result for controlling percent seedling infection in pots.
Overall findings: the V7 variety outperformed the others in all infection percentages. Therefore, we recommend the V7 variety for cultivation. Further study will be needed to evaluate a greater variety of fiber crop seeds and their appropriate management practices.
Acknowledgements
The researchers would like to thank, first and foremost, the Lord Almighty Allah for his grace in accomplishing this research study. My appreciation goes to Pradip Kumar Ray, ex-student of the master’s program in the department of plant pathology, for partial support in my research project and SAU authority.
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