The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) brought challenges to the education sector globally ( Etando et al., 2021 ; Burgess and Sievertsen, 2020 ). Due to the ease of transmission and spread of this viral infection, lockdowns were instituted as mitigation measures ( Guzzetta et al., 2020 ; Farooq, Khan and Khan, 2020 ; Haider et al., 2020 ). The pandemic also led to the closure of universities, colleges, and schools worldwide with various impacts on the learners ( Harmey and Moss, 2021 ; Sahu, 2020 ). However, there was a need to continue offering education services to the students and this led to many universities implementing online learning ( Yeo et al., 2021 ; Zheng, Bender and Lyon, 2021 ; Aristovnik et al., 2023 ; Lemay, Bazelais and Doleck, 2021 ).

Online learning, commonly known as e-learning, refers to the delivery of educational content and services through digital devices such as computers, smart-phones, and tablets ( Mooney and Bligh, 1997 ). This approach has become increasingly prevalent in medical education, offering flexible and accessible learning opportunities for students ( Mooney and Bligh, 1997 ). A variety of platforms have been utilized to facilitate e-learning, including Moodle, Zoom, and Google Meet, each offering unique features to enhance the online learning experience ( Mwila et al., 2021b ; Gamage, Ayres and Behrend, 2022 ; Carmi, 2024 ; Bailey, Almusharraf and Almusharraf, 2022 ). The closure of schools led to the implementation of e-learning in many schools to maintain the academic progress of learners ( Amir et al., 2020 ; Al-Balas et al., 2020 ; Lemay, Bazelais and Doleck, 2021 ).

Consequently, e-learning has some challenges especially for students residing in developing countries and low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs) ( Mwila et al., 2021b ; Lufungulo et al., 2021 ; Li et al., 2021 ). Learners have had different experiences during online learning across the globe ( Tashtoush, Wardat and Elsayed, 2023 ). Most students from LMICs experienced challenges due to a lack of appropriate gadgets used for online learning ( Barrot, Llenares and del Rosario, 2021 ), poor internet connectivity ( Moustakas and Robrade, 2022 ; Mahyoob, 2020 ), power cuts ( Yende, 2024 ), living in rural or remote areas ( Belay, 2020 ), learning environment control ( Barrot, Llenares and del Rosario, 2021 ), having online examinations ( Mahyoob, 2020 ), and quality of facilities used for online learning ( Kurniawan and Andani, 2022 ). Moreover, some students found it difficult to learn certain subjects using online platforms ( Mwila et al., 2021a ; Aboagye, Yawson and Appiah, 2020 ).

The closure of schools was reported in many countries and affected student’s academic progress ( Mudenda et al., 2021 ; Sahu, 2020 ; Mudenda et al., 2020 ; Sultana, Bari and Munir, 2022 ). Alongside this, many students experienced mental health challenges as they could not handle the physical school closures and initiation of online learning ( Barrot, Llenares and del Rosario, 2021 ; Kurniawan and Andani, 2022 ; Khan et al., 2020 ; Mazrekaj and De Witte, 2024 ). Despite the introduction of e-learning, the closure of schools had a great negative impact especially on students from resource-limited settings ( Mwila et al., 2021b ; Lutfor et al., 2023 ).

Evidence has indicated that after lockdowns were lifted, universities, colleges, and schools continued providing online learning together with physical classes ( Finlay, Tinnion and Simpson, 2022 ; Batista-Toledo and Gavilan, 2022 ; Atwa et al., 2022 ). This form of incorporating online and classroom (face-to-face) learning is referred to as blended learning ( Dziuban et al., 2018 ; Hrastinski, 2019 ; Atwa et al., 2022 ). It offers more benefits compared to traditional classroom learning alone as education continues even during the closure of schools as it integrates traditional-based classes and online learning ( Singh, Steele and Singh, 2021 ; Rasmitadila et al., 2020 ). Blended learning can effectively enhance participants’ acquisition of knowledge, learning satisfaction, and self-evaluation in evidence-based medicine ( Liu et al., 2024 ).

In Zambia, online learning was instigated across all universities after the report of the first case of COVID-19 on March 18, 2020 ( Simulundu et al., 2021 ; Kasanga et al., 2020 ). Additionally, university, colleges and schools introduced online learning to ensure that students were not disadvantaged academically ( Lufungulo et al., 2021 ; Mwila et al., 2021b ). Various platforms such as Moodle, Zoom, and Google Meet were widely used across universities, colleges, and schools ( Mwila et al., 2021b ). Despite the easing of lockdown restrictions, educational institutions across Zambia have continued to offer online learning alongside traditional in-person classes. However, there remains a dearth of information on the challenges that Zambian students face in both online and classroom settings during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Against this backdrop, this study was undertaken to investigate the barriers to effective online learning among pharmacy students in Zambia.

This study examined the barriers to effective online learning among pharmacy students in Zambia. The findings reveal that students face a range of challenges that significantly hinder their learning experience. Unstable internet connectivity emerged as the most critical issue, frequently disrupting access to course materials and live lectures. Additionally, the high cost of data bundles further restricts students’ ability to engage consistently with online platforms. Beyond connectivity issues, many students reported lacking the necessary gadgets, such as reliable computers or smartphones, which are essential for navigating digital learning environments. Frequent power cuts also contribute to interruptions in the learning process, making it difficult for students to maintain a consistent study schedule. Furthermore, students noted that the online format negatively impacts concentration and reduces opportunities for meaningful interactions with both peers and lecturers. These factors collectively undermine the overall quality of online education, highlighting the need for strategic interventions. Addressing these challenges will require a multifaceted approach, including infrastructural improvements, subsidized data plans, and enhanced access to digital devices. By tackling these issues, universities can create a more conducive learning environment that supports both academic success and student engagement.

Online learning among students faced numerous challenges that significantly impacted the quality of education. In this study, most students reported that their online learning was hugely affected by poor internet networks. Evidence has revealed that internet connectivity is very critical during online learning ( Sofi-Karim , Bali and Rached, 2023 ; Asio et al., 2021 ). However, poor internet connectivity may cause students to drop out during a lesson or fail to hear what the lecturer is teaching. The problem of network connection has been reported in other studies as a factor that influenced learning outcomes among students ( Das, 2023 ; Mudenda et al., 2023b ; Cullinan et al., 2021 ; Moonasamy and Naidoo, 2022 ).

Many students struggled with unstable internet connections and expensive data bundles, which caused frequent interruptions during online classes. This instability made it difficult for students to follow lectures in real time, often leading to missed information and a disjointed learning experience, similar to other reports ( Aroonsrimarakot et al., 2023 ). The situation was further complicated by the high cost and limited availability of data bundles, which placed an additional financial burden on students. High data costs were also reported in South Africa ( Moonasamy and Naidoo, 2022 ). The challenges with internet connectivity and data bundles were also reported in Ghana among college students ( Ofori Atakorah et al., 2023 ). In many cases, students had to ration their data usage, which sometimes meant they were unable to attend entire classes or access essential resources. Unstable internet connections have also been reported to affect online learning in other countries ( Mohan et al., 2020 ; Barrot, Llenares and del Rosario, 2021 ). Additionally, power cuts presented another major hurdle, particularly in areas with unreliable electricity. These power outages often occur during crucial learning sessions, forcing students to miss out on important lessons and fall behind in their studies. The lack of a stable power supply not only disrupted live sessions but also made it difficult for students to charge their devices, further hindering their ability to participate in online learning, similar to findings from other studies ( Ahmed et al., 2023 ; Yende, 2024 ; Mwila et al., 2021b ).

In the present study, the online learning environment also suffered from a lack of real-time clarifications and feedback from instructors. This challenge has been reported in other studies ( Saleem et al., 2022 ; Aroonsrimarakot et al., 2023 ). In traditional classrooms, students can immediately ask questions and receive explanations, which is essential for deepening their understanding of the material. However, in the online format, delays in communication or a lack of response from instructors left many students with unresolved doubts, leading to gaps in their knowledge. This was exacerbated by poor interactions between students and teachers, as well as among peers. The virtual setting often lacked the personal engagement and dynamic exchanges that are typical in physical classrooms, reducing the effectiveness of collaborative learning. Therefore, these challenges need to be addressed ( Barrot, Llenares and del Rosario, 2021 ).

This study found that background disturbances were another significant issue, as students often had to attend classes from home, where distractions such as household noise and other activities were prevalent. These disturbances made it difficult for students to concentrate fully during lessons, negatively affecting their ability to absorb and retain information. Additionally, the limited number of participants that could be accommodated on platforms like Zoom and Google Meet meant that not all students could join live sessions, leading to feelings of exclusion and frustration. The background disturbances experienced during online learning have been reported previously ( Barrot, Llenares and del Rosario, 2021 ).

The present study found that low participation was a common problem in online classes, with many students feeling disconnected from the learning process. The lack of physical presence and peer interaction diminished students’ engagement, leading to passive participation. This lack of motivation was compounded by rushed lectures, where instructors, attempting to cover the syllabus within the constraints of the online format, moved through material too quickly for students to fully grasp the concepts. These challenges have also been reported in previous studies ( Amir et al., 2020 ; Mudenda et al., 2023b ). Therefore, university authorities need to find ways of motivating students to be satisfied with online learning.

In the present study, technical challenges, such as software glitches, platform crashes, and difficulties in accessing or submitting assignments, further complicate the online learning process. These issues not only frustrated students but also led to delays in their academic progress. Technical challenges have been reported to lower the satisfaction of students with online learning ( Çakmakkaya et al., 2024 ; Al-Balas et al., 2020 ; Gachanja, Mwangi and Gicheru, 2021 ). Lack of digital culture has been proven to be a big challenge, especially in developing countries ( Ndibalema, 2022 ). Additionally, the online assessment environment created opportunities for cheating, as the lack of supervision made it easier for students to engage in dishonest practices. This finding is reported to undermine the integrity of the assessment process and devalue the efforts of students who studied diligently ( Sevnarayan and Maphoto, 2024 ; Henderson et al., 2023 ; Jalilzadeh, Rashtchi and Mirzapour, 2024 ).

The current study reported that the learning environment in the online format often led to poor concentration among students. The combination of technical issues, lack of engagement, and various distractions made it difficult for students to focus during classes. This reduced their ability to learn effectively, leading to a decline in academic performance. These challenges collectively created a less conducive learning environment, highlighting the need for improvements in the delivery and support of online education. The learning environment may affect the delivery of online learning and may lead to poor learning outcomes ( Barrot, Llenares and del Rosario, 2021 ; Aroonsrimarakot et al., 2023 ).

The present study found that the lack of access to appropriate gadgets significantly impacted the effectiveness of online learning among students. In the context of remote education, having a reliable device such as a laptop, tablet, or smartphone is essential for attending virtual classes, completing assignments, and accessing educational resources. However, many students, particularly those from economically disadvantaged backgrounds, struggled to participate in online learning due to the absence of these necessary tools. For students without gadgets, attending live online classes was an impossible task. The findings of this study are similar to previous findings ( Segbenya et al., 2022 ). This digital divide created a significant barrier to education, as these students were unable to join virtual classrooms, interact with their peers and instructors, or engage with the course material in real time. As a result, they missed out on valuable learning opportunities and fell behind their classmates who had the necessary technology at their disposal. Even for students who did have access to some form of technology, the quality and suitability of their gadgets often posed challenges. For example, using an outdated smartphone with a small screen or limited processing power made it difficult to view course content, participate in video calls, or use educational software effectively. These limitations not only hindered the learning experience but also added to the frustration and stress of trying to keep up with academic demands. The use of digital technologies in education could have come with various challenges including how the technology is used ( Timotheou et al., 2023 ).

In this study, students without adequate gadgets were unable to fully participate in interactive online activities, such as group projects, discussions, and collaborative learning exercises. This lack of participation not only affected their academic performance but also deprived them of the social interaction and peer support that are essential components of the learning experience. The absence of gadgets also limited students’ ability to develop digital literacy skills, which are increasingly important in today’s technology-driven world. Students who lacked regular access to devices missed out on opportunities to become proficient in using digital tools and platforms, which could have long-term implications for their future education and career prospects.

Based on the findings of this study, to enhance online education, educational authorities should focus on training instructors/teachers/lecturers to better support their students. Universities should implement learning management systems (LMS) to ensure timely course material delivery and secure online discussion forums. Collaboration among parents, students, and university management is essential for improving education quality. Faculty with limited skills should receive training to enhance their online teaching capabilities. Additionally, even students with limited technological skills need to be supported. Students should also be guided on how they can control their learning environment and time management. Pre-developed course modules can help both teachers and students prepare for online classes. Finally, any concerns from instructors or learners about online education’s technological or content features must be promptly addressed and resolved.

This study has some limitations. First, as the study was conducted solely among pharmacy students at the University of Zambia, the results may not be generalizable to pharmacy students in other institutions or to students from different disciplines. This single-site focus may limit the applicability of the findings to broader student populations within Zambia or similar contexts. Second, the cross-sectional design of this study limits the ability to establish causal relationships between the identified challenges and online learning outcomes. The snapshot nature of the data collection means that temporal changes and evolving challenges over time are not captured. Third, data were collected using an adapted questionnaire, which relies on self-reported information. This method is subject to biases such as recall bias and social desirability bias, potentially affecting the accuracy and reliability of the responses regarding the challenges experienced. However, this study provides vital findings into the challenges faced by pharmacy students during online learning.

This study revealed that pharmacy students in Zambia faced significant challenges during the transition to online learning. Key issues included inconsistent internet connectivity, inadequate data bundles, limited opportunities for interactive feedback, reduced class participation, and a range of technical difficulties. These obstacles not only disrupted their immediate learning experience but also threatened to undermine long-term academic outcomes. In light of these findings, there is a compelling need for higher education institutions to develop and implement blended learning curricula. Such curricula would integrate traditional face-to-face teaching with online methods, harnessing the flexibility of digital platforms while mitigating the issues associated with remote learning. By addressing the specific challenges identified by the students, educators can create a more supportive and effective learning environment that promotes better engagement and improved academic performance.

The University of Zambia and other universities can implement a range of solutions to address the challenges identified by pharmacy students during the transition to online learning. Here are several targeted strategies:

1) Enhance Connectivity and Infrastructure

2) Adopt a Blended Learning Model

3) Strengthen Technical Support and Training

4) Improve the Online Learning Environment

5) Increase Access to Digital Devices

6) Implement Feedback and Continuous Improvement Mechanisms