Human existence and humanity as a whole are threatened by social and natural calamities, such as terrorism, herder-farmer conflicts, and earthquakes, volcanoes, and land slides, as well as ethno-religious conflicts. They represent problems and security dangers that modern civilizations, notably developing ones, have had to deal with. By the end of 2021, it was anticipated that 53.2 million people had been forcefully displaced from their homes or regions worldwide as a result of conflict, violence, and violations of human rights (United Nations Commissioner for Refugees (
UNHCR, 2022
). Nigeria is currently dealing with the issue of internal displacement, conflicts between farmers and herders, aggressive non-state organizations in the nation, including religious factions like Boko Haram and ISWAP (Islamic State West Africa Province are the causes of this (
Onuoha, 2016
;
Mohammed, 2014
). The Nigeria Internal Displacement Monitoring Center estimates that by the end of 2023, about 3.3 millions of people have experienced internal displacement due to violence and conflict (
IDMC, 2023
). Women make up 53% of Nigeria’s internally displaced people who was affected, according to the Internally Displaced Monitoring Centre (
IDMC, 2023
). According to the analysis, half of the population was over five years old, and children accounted for 56% of the total. Women and children make up over 70% of all internally displaced people, according to other research (
Aboh, 2016
). According to the
World Health Organization (2020)
, women and girls who live in overcrowded displacement camps with diminishing basic social infrastructure are inevitably vulnerable to various forms of abuse, which can always result in a detrimental impact on their social well-being.
Therefore, this study examined the socioeconomic characteristics of the females in the internally displaced camps and the implications on their social well-being. The specific objectives were to interrogate whether the socioeconomic characteristics of the females in camp social environment such as age, camp, marital status, and religion will independently and jointly significantly predict social well-being among the females on IDP camp; the level and differences of social well-being experienced by women and young adolescent girls among the selected IDPs in Abuja.
2. Literature Review2.1. Camp Social Environment
According to
Yen and Syme (1999)
, in the work of
Barnett and Casper (2001: p. 288
), the social environment includes “the groups we are a part of, the locations where we live, how our businesses are set up, and the guidelines we set for our daily lives”. This implies that whatever family, group, friendship, association, club, interactions and work place we belong to make up our social environment. Health-promoting elements of the social surroundings include those that affect protection, crime, and social dysfunction in general, as well as more particular factors that affect the form, nature, and sustainability of social connections, such as social engagement, social solidarity, social capital, and the collective (
Chetty et al., 2016
;
Ferris, 2011
). However, IDP camp is a social environment to which the internally displaced persons belong to. Cultures, families, how people organize their job, and life management techniques are all part of the social environment. Any environment depends on ongoing interactions between social processes, human and environmental factors, and interpersonal relationships in order to avoid being isolated (
Yen & Syme, 1999
).
The social or cultural environment encompasses the historical, political, moral, cultural, and economic facets of human life. The social climate, or cultural environment, refers to the history and way of life of the people who live in a community (
Taylor, 1997
). It is the man-made or artificial world that is formed by man’s social, cultural, and mental behaviors. The social or cultural environment encompasses the historical, political, moral, cultural, and economic facets of human life.
2.2. The IDPs’ Social Environment in the Camp
Economic insecurity, which includes loss of means of subsistence, joblessness, and restricted availability of supplies of nature that Individuals and groups rely on, as well as unconscious removal of aid and constrained access to shared resources, are some of the severe repercussions of displacement. These factors get it challenging to sustain a circumstance in which relocation is a likelihood (
Oyefara & Alabi, 2016
).
Without a doubt, the world’s rising percentage of internally displacement individuals (IDPs) is a matter of concern for the international community. IDPs are confronted with a number of security challenges that the affected state has yet to address. He went on to add that it reflects the lack of political will on the part of the state. Homeless people, according to
Hampton (2013)
, typically make their home in “dense forests or jungles” where they become afflicted with infectious diseases or suffer from human suffering. Refugees are often in financial distress, and they are often refused the ability to contribute directly to the economies of their own country (
Harris Rimmer, 2010
). Hundreds thousands of individuals flee their homes each year to seek refuge in the “buffer zone” of their neighborhoods (
Hampton, 2013
).
The most urgent issues facing displaced individuals, according to
World Health Organization (2020)
, is nutritional deprivation, which is brought on by starvation, relocation, and a lack of accessibility to basic amenities. Starvation among those who moved people is also acknowledged as a severe problem, particularly for women and girls. According to
Oyefara and Alabi (2016)
, one of the immediate social outcomes of movement that has been thoroughly examined in our source material is the decline in well-being. mostly because of the scarcity of readily available sanitary facilities and adequate drinking water, in addition to the result of ongoing economic deterioration that causes emotional discomfort, cognitive disorders, and solitude. Categories that are most susceptible to wellness hazards linked to development-induced movement include mothers, females, and old people whose usual prosperity was significantly lower than that of men (
Terminski, 2013
). The
UNHCR (2010)
reports that women make up a sizable portion of the international internally displaced people. The women are acknowledged by both parties as a significant component of the community affected by internal displacement and are viewed as more vulnerable than other impacted communities since they lose their means of subsistence, have lower access to aid, and are unable to obtain employment.
According to
Oyefara and Alabi (2016)
, they also forfeit the well-being of their kids educational prospects, endanger their relationships, and lose their long-lasting social and cultural links. In addition, they are excluded from voting procedures and find it challenging to assert their claims to a place to live, land, and possessions. Due to their gender, females were also shown to be highly vulnerable to mental, psychological, and other forms of home hostility; this is sometimes worsen by rising rates of drinking, which makes men more insecure and controlled (
Oyefara & Alabi, 2016
). As part of the condition called post-traumatic stress syndrome, all of these factors are believed to have the potential to cause unhappiness and decline in health (
Oyefara & Alabi, 2016
). Slander, being attacked, hardship, embarrassment and rely on particular social strata are all typified by the pervasive sense of fear (
Olanrewaju et al., 2019
). Within the sense of this definition, vulnerability refers to a common condition shared by all human beings (
Olanrewaju et al., 2019
;
Satz, 2008
).
Internal displacement is a cause for concern because it is associated with violations of many human rights and is a source of contention within humanitarian circles. Vulnerable populations, such as refugees, are demographic classes that are disproportionately exposed to risk factors (
Olanrewaju et al., 2019
). They are disenfranchised from mainstream society due to their marginalization, vulnerability, and disenfranchisement (
Satz, 2008
). As such, internal displacement is unquestionably a human phenomenon characterized by insecurity and the victims’ failure to self-provide for their basic needs and security, at least during the time of displacement. They are at risk of sickness, accident, mental pain, dependency, lack of economic stability, and eviction (
Chetty et al., 2016
). Thus, the hypothesis offers a framework for examining the situation of IDPs residing in chosen informal settlements along with their knowledge of the manner in which the state’s carelessness has made crimes against humanity worse and strengthened their vulnerability in Abuja, Nigeria.
Additionally, it enables an examination of the degree to which bureaucratic lapses are used to exacerbate existing inequalities toward IDPs. Internal displacement has a variety of consequences and deprives affected individuals of jobs, housing, and security. Victims of migration face arbitrary imprisonment, enforced disappearances, forced conscription, child trafficking, sexual harassment, lack of access to adequate services, food shortages, and educational opportunities, among other atrocities (
IDMC, 2010
).
2.3. Social Well-Being
Good well-being is a combination of physical and psychological happiness as well as social well-being. It may not be difficult to acknowledge that you have social anxiety when you feel uneasy or anxious in a friendly situation (
Sampson et al, 2002
). Given that people are inherently amiable creatures, this might occasionally be worrying we each live in communities, assembling in towns and cities with families or friends. In actuality, relatively few of them invest much of their everyday lives by themselves (
Chetty et al., 2016
). Needing to feel associated and be around others is a characteristic motivation, our well-being can be in a general sense affected through the amount and nature of our encouraging groups of people and social associations (
Mariachiara, 2014
).
The social aspect of well-being, or social well-being, refers to our ability to establish and maintain meaningful, constructive relationships and regular interactions with those around us in our real world, including those with whom we share a relationship. Maintaining associations, engaging appropriately in such relationships, and adhering to appropriate social norms are all components that contribute to substantial social well-being. Our relationship with our family, the essential social unit, impacts our life the most (
Mariachiara, 2014
). We assemble our social prosperity by collaborating with individuals around us. These connections include utilizing great relational abilities, making and keeping up significant connections, regarding ourselves as well as other people, and making emotionally supportive networks (with loved ones). Social well-being is emphatically connected to social consideration and a feeling of having a place (
Sampson et al., 2002
). In our general public, an associated individual is an upheld individual. Social knowledge factors, like our passionate insight, moral code, childhood, capacity to adjust and benevolence, all assist to develop social prosperity, as do things like trust, opportunity and equivalent rights. Social prosperity is additionally affected by our ways of life, esteem frameworks, convictions and customs. Social well-being influences our actual well-being. People who have strong social ties and positive social relationships will generally be happier, better and surprisingly live more than the individuals who don’t (
Chetty et al., 2016
).
2.4. Internally Displaced Women’s Social Well-Being in a Camp Setting
Similarly that the actual climate influences well-being, through contamination or protected with lovely walking areas, the social atmosphere can both indicate and impact well-being (
Barnett & Casper, 2001
). As one model, ongoing exploration (
Cagney et al., 2014
) tracked down that more seasoned grown-ups that resided in the vicinity where the devastating Economy saw an elevated level of disengagement are bound to encounter episode of discouragement than those in more steady areas, paying little mind to their own monetary circumstance. A generally new writing has zeroed in on the states of the actual family, encompassing the existence of earth, mess, smell, helpless fix, and commotion, which collectively recommend family issue (
York Cornwell, 2016
). This exploration shows joins in the two ways between family issue and well-being. For instance, low-pay and African American more seasoned grown-ups dwell more deeply in confused conditions, as do those with more unfortunate physical and psychological well-being. Hazard of living in an untidy, messy, uproarious family in helpless fix is lower for more established grown-ups who have a co inhabitant accomplice, more non-private organization connections, and additional wellsprings of instrumental help (
York Cornwell, 2016
). While family problem mirrors an absence of social help, over the long run it prompts more kinfolk focused organizations and more strain inside family connections (
York Cornwell, 2016
).
2.5. Social Well-Being and Social Economic Factors of Females in Camp Environment
In the displaced camps, women lose their means of support, have less access to aid, struggle to get proper healthcare and education, and are more susceptible to various forms of gender-based violence (
Mohammed, 2017
). In most developing nations, including Nigeria, the impact of displacement will inevitably be more severe for women (
Bolanle & Hezekiah Abimbola, 2024
). This is because gender inequality already exists and is primarily caused by patriarchal societies with unequal social and political structures, where laws, regulations, and government procedures clearly discriminate against women (
Olabisi, 2013
). Hunger, contention, severe weather, and isolated attacks resulted in a historic 17 million people to be forcefully evacuated from East Africa by the end of 2022. Half of this population consists of women and girls. They are exposed to different threats during every stage of their displacement, which makes their experience of displacement different from that of men and boys. Additionally, they encounter more difficulties in obtaining employment, getting access to healthcare and education, and protecting themselves. As a result, their coping mechanisms, resources, and capacities vary, as do their demands (
United Nations International Organization for Migration, 2022
).
3. Theoretical FrameworkSocio-Ecological Model
Kasarda and Janowitz (1974)
introduced the concept of a relational approach by stating that local societies are dynamic structures of “friendship and kinship networks, as well as structured and unofficial associational relationships ingrained in continuous socializing procedures and familial relationships”. The ecological model depicts the mutual relationships between various variables operating at various stages. The article’s most ground-breaking aspect is its eventual aim of framing certain concrete ecological guidelines for social and psychological approaches. As such, this article will operationalize ecological values through the creation of basic institutional guidance for service organization like the displaced camps.
Taylor (1997)
summarizes the ecological viewpoint in five principles: 1) Communities are distinct human environments in terms of their spatial and socio-structural characteristics; 2) people are emotionally rooted in and reliant on their neighbourhoods; this commitment is affected and shaped by local behavioral norms, socioeconomic structures, and cognitive mapping strategies; and 3) Neighbourhood as a result, the ecological environment prioritizes population characteristics over individual characteristics, or what
Bursik and Grasmick (1993)
refer to as emergent properties: The relational networks involved with crime prevention within a neighbourhood, the viability of neighbourhood groups as structured and informal agents of social control, the links between these organizations, the neighborhood’s political power base, and the local community’s relationship to the broader metropolitan environment are all critical. In summary, ecological theories contend that neighbourhoods are diverse systems that change with time; that these developments can have an impact on their social management capacities; and that associational networks, internal and external structures, and surrounding populations can all have an impact on a neighbourhood’s capacity to regulate operation and monitor crime within its borders. Populations, in other words, are perceptual landscapes in which behavioural norms and beliefs are formed and expressed, as suggested by
Sampson et al. (2002)
. Therefore, alternative value systems exist in communities where socio-structural inequality prevails, where harassment, chaos and consumption of drugs are less ardently challenged and thus considered as an aspect of daily existence. Such environmentally cultural standards and sensitivities likely to impact the likelihood of illegal activity consequences and disruptive behavior (
Sampson et al., 2002
). This theory proposed that negative conditions of living in the IDPs camps environment contributed to the widespread vulnerabilities, abuses and violence which results to negative social well-being.
4. Methods
In this study, quantitative data was collected using a cross-sectional survey approach instruments were used in the study to determine the connection between the socioeconomic characteristics of the displaced females in the camp environment and their social well-beings. The study was conducted in Abuja (FCT). Abuja is a city in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) in the middle of Nigeria. Abuja (FCT) was chosen because of its centrality and security of the researcher. Abuja hosts a number of IDP camps, given its centrality. The quantitative study utilised simple random sampling techniques with a blend of purposive sampling. The population was purposively selected because the focus of the study was on IDPs. Simple randomisation was adopted for the selection of camps and the participants; this allow for equal probability of being chosen out of the groups to arrive at the appropriate sample size for the study. There are 10 IDP camps in Abuja area (Durumi, Kuje-Pegi, Wassa, Waru Community, Malaysia Arden’s in Apo, Jikwoyi, Karu, Orozco and MarabaLoko host community camp and New-Kuchingoro), an “odd” and “even” number tallies were attached with each camps at random; those camp with odd numbers were dropped and those with even numbers attached with their names were adopted as sample for this study. Therefore, these four camps were purposively selected after the simple randomisation for use in this study (Durumi, Kuje-Pegi, Wassa and New-Kuchingoro). For the participants, another already prepared tallies of a “Yes” and “No” tallies were administered at random to the potential participant who met inclusion criteria. Those who picked “Yes” tally was the only one involved in this study while those who picked “No” tallies were excluded. Adopting this sampling technique in the study makes the sampling process easier for the researcher and the research assistants. Quota sampling was used to determine respondents selected from each camp. Lastly, 852 respondents were selected using purposive sampling procedure. Questionnaire were used to collect data. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data, and regression analysis at the 0.05 level of significance was used for inferential analysis.
5. Ethical Consideration
The researcher applied for the Ethical Approval and was obtained from a public university in the region, with ethical number UIL/2024/00211. Also, the researcher obtained approval from the officials of each of the selected IDP camps as well as other relevant agencies. The researcher also ensured the participation of the affected women and girls in this study as voluntary. In other words, the researcher seeks and obtains informed consent from all the participants prior to the start of data collection. The informed consent implies that a participant agreed to be part of the study having being adequately informed and indicated that they properly understood the aim and objectives of the research.
6. Data Analysis
The statistical tests used were Pearson product-moment correlation composite relationship of the independent variables, while the inferential statistical tests such as; multiple regression analysis, One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), t-test of independent sample, Chi-square and Hayes Macro Process Regression analysis were used to test for the significance of the research hypotheses formulated in this study.
7. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
A total of 852 internally displaced Northern Nigerian respondents participated in this study (Mean = 15.58 ± 86.5) years. Precisely, participants within adolescence age (15 - 19 years) were 113 (13.3%) and the women (20 and above years) were 739 (86.7%). Regarding their state of origin; 818 (96.0%) were from Borno and 295 (48.3%), 15 (1.8%) were from Adamawa while 19 (2.2%) were from Yobe. The Christian participants were 304 (35.7%), while Muslims were 548 (64.3%). Regarding their marital status; the married women were 697 (81.9%), the singleswere113 (13.3%), the separated/divorced respondents were 10 (1.2%) and the widows were 32 (3.8%). Their IDP Centres were thus; Wassa 361 (42.4%), Durumi 237 (27.8%), KujePegi 135 (15.8%), and New Kunchingoro 119 (14.0%). Original Place of Residents; Adamawa 42 (4.9%), Yobe 81 (9.5%), Borno 3 (0.4%) and Chibok 107 (12.6%) (
Table 1
).
Preliminary analysis of the study showing demographic, socioeconomic and sociological factors predicting social well-being among the selected internally displaced persons.
Table 2
below revealed a noteworthy correlation among individuals’ age and social well-being, such that, the 13.8% variance observe in the social well-being that was accounted for by Age groups of respondents (χ2 = 10.09; p < 0.01;
= 0.138). Additionally, it was disclosed that participants in adolescence (83.8%) and
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141434-"></xref>Table 2. Showing the influence of socioeconomic status on social well-being among participants.
Socio-Economics
Social Well-Being
95% CI
df
χ2
Age
High (%)
Low (%)
Adolescents
16.2
83.8
0.014 - 0.020
3
10.09**
0.138
Early Adults
62.7
37.3
0.015 - 0.022
Middle Adults
46.9
53.1
0.014 - 0.021
Late Adults
53.0
47.0
0.028 - 0.037
Camp
Wassa
33.7
67.3
0.00 - 0.000
3
15.32**
0.071
Durumi
33.9
66.1
0.00 - 0.000
KujePegi
52.1
47.9
0.013 - 0.018
New Kingaro
41.0
69.0
0.14 - 0.019
Religion
Christianity
37.5
62.5
0.170 - 0.192
2
07.89**
0.122
Islam
58.6
41.4
0.205 - 0.290
No religion Preference
64.0
36.0
0.161 - 0.181
Marital Status
Married
57.5
42.5
0.157 - 0.176
2
05.12**
0.022
Unmarried
55.4
45.6
0.172 - 0.192
Separated
16.7
83.3
0.105 - 0.109
Initial Place of Residents
Rural
56.7
43.3
0.12 - 0.139
1
0.001
NA
Urban
56.6
43.4
0.28 - 0.029
middle adulthood (53.1%) classifications exhibited low social well-being, whereas most of the participants in the preliminary adulthood (62.7%) and late adulthood (53%) possess moderate social well-being. Additionally, it was discovered that there is a strong correlation between individuals’ location of camp and social well-being, such that, the 17.1% variance observe in the social well-being was accounted for by respondents’ camp location (χ2 = 15.32; p < 0.01;
= 0.171). It was further disclosed that respondents from New Kuchingoro (69.0%), Wassa camp (67.3%) and followed by Durumi camp (66.1%) showed low social well-being than their counterparts in Kuje-Pegi camp (47.9%). some specific factors in the New Kuchingoro camp, Wassa camp and Durumi camp from the finding includes unsafe building, overcrowding, lack of security and lack of basic amenities. Meanwhile, Kuje-Pegi camp has normal building structure for accommodation though too expensive to cope with. Furthermore, the displaced in New-Kuchingoro camp, Wassa Camp and Durumi camp’s social well-being in terms of access to health care facilities are better the Kuje-Pegi dwellers because they are closer to government incentives in the town.
In addition, the study found a strong correlation between participants’ religion and social well-being, such that, the 12.2% variance observe social well-being was accounted for by respondents’ religion affiliation (χ2 = 07.89; p < 0.01;
= 0.122). It was further revealed that Christian participants (62.5%) showed more low social well-being compared to counterparts with Islamic belief (41.4%) and those with no religion affiliations (36.0%). This is due to fact that the Christians doesn’t have good inter-personal relationship with the Muslims for differences in religion belief within the camp which could result to physical attacks in some cases.
The study further revealed a significant association between participants’ marital status and social well-being, such that, the 12.2% variance observe social well-being was accounted for by respondents’ marital status (χ2 = 05.12; p < 0.01;
= 0.022). It was further revealed that the married participants (83.3%) showed more low social well-being compared to counterparts who were unmarried (45.5%) and separated (45.6%). This is because the married depends solely on their spouses for provision as much as majority of them are full-house wives for religion beliefs reasons, while the unmarried and separated are free to work and cater for their need both in and out of the camp environment. The investigation also found a strong correlation between individuals’ initial residential locations (χ2 = 0.001; p > 0.05) are not significantly associated with social well-being. This has implication on the social well-being of the selected participants.
8. Test of Research Hypotheses
The results for linear regression analysis used for testing the hypotheses are presented below:
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141434-"></xref>Table 3. Bias-Corrected unstandardized, 95% Confidence Interval for the Indirect Effect of Camp environment on social well-being.
From
Table 3
above, the camp environment did significantly predict social well-being with negative direct impact, b = −0.04, t = −4.10, p < 0.01. This can be explained that as the camp social environment increases so also there is a tendency for social well-being to decrease. According to Preacher and Hayes (2004), establishing a mediating impact in the Structure Equation Model (SEM) framework requires careful consideration of the importance of both total effect = −0.04, [t = −3.70, p < 0.001]; direct effect = −0.04, [t = −4.10, p < 0.001] and indirect effect = −0.000, p > 0.01. In the existing hypothesis, the total effect of camp social environment on social well-being was significant. However,
Table 4
displays 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals and a standardized estimate for the indirect effect of camp social environment on social well-being revealed no mediation effect. Given that the direct effect of camp social environment on social well-being still maintained significance with a negative effect.
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141434-"></xref>Table 4. T-Test summary table showing developmental age difference between respondents on social well-being.
Developmental Stage
N
Std
Df
T
P
Social Well-being
Women
113
12.04
2.62
849
0.359
>0.719
Female Adolescents
739
11.97
2.14
AUTHOR, 2024.
Table 4
presents the results of hypothesis three which state that the women respondents will score high significantly on social well-being than female adolescents counterparts; the result showed that developmental stage of life regarding age difference did not differ on social well-being among the respondents [t (549) = 0.359; P > 0.05]. The result indicates that when compared both participants on social well-being, the female adolescents and the women respondents did not differ on the score social well-being while on IDP camp. The hypothesis is thus rejected for this study.
Regarding the hypothesis four which state individuals who married will score high significantly on social well-being compared to the separated, the widow and the single counterparts. Result from in
Table 5
showed that marital status has significant influence on social well-being (F (2, 531) = 4.381, p < 0.01).
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141434-"></xref>Table 5. Showing the significant influence of marital status on social wellbeing among the participants.
Source
SS
Df
MS
F
P
Between Groups
82.244
3
27.415
5.637
<0.01
Error
4119.456
847
4.864
Total
4201.699
850
Dependent variable: Social Well-being. AUTHOR, 2024.
A multiple group comparison test was used to establish the magnitude significant determinant of the F Value. Hence, the three groups were compared using Bonferroni post hoc analysis (
Table 5
).
The result given in
Table 6
shows that with the adjusted mean of 12.05, participants who were married reported more social well-being compared to the widowed individuals (n = 32) with adjusted mean of 10.88 and separated with the
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.141434-"></xref>Table 6. Showing the summary of bonferroni analysis of economic status on social wellbeing among participants.
Groups
N
SD
1
2
3
1) Married
697
12.05
2.18
1
2) Single
113
12.03
2.57
−0.03
1
1
3) Separated
10
10.00
0.000
−2.05*
−2.03*
0.875
4) Widow
32
10.88
1.48
−1.17*
−1.15
1
Note: **p < 0.01. Dependent variable: Social well-being. AUTHOR, 2024.
adjusted mean of 0.000. The is no significant difference in the social well-being of the married and the single respondents (mean difference; MD = −03; p > 0.05). However, there was a significant difference between the social well-being of the of the separated and single individuals (MD = −2.03; p < 0.05) with adjusted mean of 2.57 for singles and 0.000 for the separated respondents. Also, with the adjusted mean of 12.05 for the married and 10.88 for the widowed respondents married scored high on social well-being than the widowed individuals (MD = −1.17; p < 0.05), however there was no significant difference between the widowed and the separated respondents. Therefore, this hypothesis is accepted for this study.
9. Discussion of the Findings
The analysis showed that socioeconomic factors of the respondents in the camp environment such as age, religion, marital status and camp location independently and jointly significantly predict their social well. The respondents’ camp location and social well-being are significantly correlated. It was further revealed that respondents from New Kuchinoro, Wassa camp and followed by Durumi camp showed low social well-being than their counterparts in KujePegi camp due to their poor camp social environment and facilities. It was revealed in the course of the study that, the camp in kuchingoro, and Durumi are made up of bad structures and unprotected. It was also revealed that Wassa camp’s buildings were abandoned military structures with or without windows and doors. This finding confirmed the assertion of
Mariachiara (2014)
where she affirmed that “Our well-being can be in a general sense affected by the amount of accessible life satisfactory facilities and nature of our encouraging groups of people and social associations”.
Additionally, the study found a strong correlation between participants’ religion and social well-being. It was further revealed that Christian participant compared to counterparts with Islamic belief and those with no religion affiliations. The investigation also found a strong correlation with individuals’ marital status and social well-being. It was further revealed that the married participants showed lower social well-being compared to counterparts who were unmarried and separated. This finding is in tandems with the submission of
Stark & Ager (2011)
Vu et al. (2013)
and
Bolanle et al. (2024)
in analysing some factors associated with displacement that may make married women to be more vulnerable to abuses in IDP camps. These factors include low education, post-traumatic stress disorder as a consequence of their being exposed to violent situations, disruption of social networks and consequent loss of social support and loss of economic power following loss of own job or loss of husband’s job leading to economic insecurity (
Bolanle & Hezekiah Abimbola, 2024
). These factors according to them may propel some women to decide to continue maintaining relationship with violent men, engaging in new unhealthy and destructive relationships with men or other family members or becoming sex workers for financial security and stability. This was supported by the submission of (
Bolanle et al., 2022
) which states that “As the characteristics of the camp environment becomes poor, experience of sexual and gender violence becomes rampant”. On the other hand, it was discovered that responses’ initial residential locations are not significantly associated with social well-being. Furthermore, a noteworthy correlation among individuals’ age and social well-being. It was further revealed that respondents in adolescence and middle adulthood classifications exhibited low social well-being, while the majority of the respondents in early adulthood and late adulthood exhibited moderate social well-being. Regrading hypothesis three which state that the women participants will score high significantly on social well-being than female adolescents’ counterparts. The result indicates that when compared both participants on social well-being, the female adolescents and the women respondents did not differ on the score social well-being while on IDP camp.
Regarding the hypothesis four which state individuals who married will score high significantly on social well-being compared to the separated, the widow and the single counterparts. Result showed that economic status has significant influence on social well-being. It was showed that participants who were married reported more social well-being compared to the widowed individuals and separated; there was a significant difference between the social well-being of the of the separated, single individuals and the separated respondents. Also, the married respondents married scored high on social well-being than the widowed individuals. Meanwhile, there is no significant difference in the social well-being of the married and the single respondents. Also, there was no significant difference between the widowed and the separated respondents. The study also found out that the level of social well-being among the women and girls were low as 80% of them disagreed that they were happy and satisfied with such environment. They experienced poor sexual life though they have fairly-good interpersonal relationship as 70% of them agreed to this but it was obvious they were eager to go back to their original places of residence as a result of unfair camp treatment, gender violence and uncomfortable camp environment situations which were the factor that majorly affected the females in the selected camps.
10. Conclusion
Findings from this study assessed the lived experiences of internally displaced women and girls in selected camps in Abuja. It is clear that people are holding on to wrong notion about these people as well taken good care of by the government and the host communities. The study examined the socio-economic characteristics of the displaced females (age 15 and above) in the camp social environment which includes their age, economic opportunities, initial places of residents, present camp location, gender-based violence and marital status and their social well-being in their various camps. From the findings, there is no doubt that there is poor social well-being among the displaced women and girls in the camp social environment. Factors responsible for the poor social well-being have been revealed to be associated to their exposure to bad camp environment and gender violence.
11. Recommendation
These recommendations are offered in order to improve the social environment of the IDP camps for displaced women and girls, which will improve their social well-being:
1) The camp environment situation deserves to be improved and made more habitable for the dwellers by providing the available facilities for better living.
2) Proper, adequate and timely response solution must be provided by the government through prompt security aids to curb violent activities and displacement from their usual places of residence so that they will start living their normal lives.
3) Provision of the free education and tertiary health care. This will help the girls more by protecting them from unnecessary vulnerability and seeing prostitution as alternative to make a good living. This will enhance proper accessibility for good social well-being.
4) There is need to discourage women and girls from hiding any violent act inflicting upon them so as to reduce the risk of pains and untimely death on themselves. There is need to alley the fear of stigmatization, rejection and discrimination when violated. This can be better done by social workers.
5) Government needs to encourage the internally displaced people by giving them access to economic activities in and outside their domain. One of the challenges raised by the women is the issue of no income for their husbands that normally cause violent reactions and no incentives for them to do personal business or go into farming.
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the support of students and friends who helped in collection of data in Abuja IDPs. We also appreciate our interpreter on the field for the job well done.
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