Using the Lemeshow’s sample size formula (n = (Z²*p*q)/E²) and the finite population correction: n’ = (n*N)/(n + N) [16] , where n represents the required sample size, Z—Z-Score (1.96); p—Standard deviation = 0.5; q—1-p = 0.5; E—the margin of error = 0.5; and N is the targeted population reflective of the sample size.

Integrating the population size in WAR with regards waste management, which stands at 2503 residents [17] . Therefore, the sample size for this study was 333 across 10 communities in Western Area Rural, thus the number of respondents recruited.

Data collection occur through structured questionnaires administered to selected households, covering demographic information, waste management practices, environmental awareness, attitudes towards waste disposal, and barriers to effective waste management.

Descriptive statistics was used to summarize the demographic characteristics of the sample and waste management practices. For statistical significance between respondents and different parameters collected, inferential statistical methods, such as regression analysis, and Chi Square Tests employed to identify factors and determine whether there is a significant association between two categorical variables with waste management practices.

A higher percentage of respondents are Muslim 60.1% followed by Christians. Regarding employment, entrepreneurship was the leading occupation 33.6%, with 24.6% of females and 9% of males engaged in small businesses. Teaching 22.5% and construction/manual labor 16.5% were other common occupations, with males predominantly represented in construction/manual labor 12.6% compared to females 3.9%.

A large majority of respondents were married or cohabiting 66.1%, while 25.2% were single and 6.9% were widowed. In addition to the methodology reflecting a significantly more female demography sampled (more women were met at home during the study) compared to males, monthly income levels revealed significant economic disparities. Nearly half (47.7%) earned below the minimum wage (SLe 600), with women disproportionately affected - 36% of females fell into this income range compared to 11.7% of males (p < 0.0226). Additionally, fewer females earned above the minimum wage compared to males (p < 0.0293).

Most households with over five members were common 68.5%, with females more likely to reside in larger households 47.1% than males 21.3%. The majority of respondents lived in unfenced flats/apartment buildings 55%, while 17.7% resided in fenced flats.

The study revealed that 98.2% of respondents recognized the importance of proper waste management, indicating overwhelmingly positive attitudes toward the practice. Health promotion and maintaining a clean, aesthetically pleasing environment were cited as the main motivators, with 42.9% of respondents emphasizing the prevention of illness and 12.9% highlighting the importance of a clean environment. Additionally, 97.9% acknowledged personal responsibility for waste management, and 93.1% believed it to be a shared responsibility, reflecting a strong communal attitude toward maintaining cleanliness.

However, despite these positive attitudes, the actual practice of waste management was limited. Only 21.3% of respondents actively participated in waste segregation, and 17.4% engaged in recycling. This gap between attitudes and practice suggests that while awareness and intentions are high, external barriers such as financial constraints and lack of infrastructure prevent individuals from acting on their positive beliefs.

The study found that 93.1% of respondents believed waste management to be a shared responsibility, indicating strong social norms favoring communal efforts. However, informal disposal methods such as open dumping (62.9%) and burning (17.9%) remained prevalent, suggesting that these practices are socially accepted within the community. The persistence of these behaviors, despite awareness of their negative impacts, aligns with TPB’s assertion that when negative behaviors are perceived as normative, they are more likely to persist.

Furthermore, the practice of selling plastics for recycling, motivated by financial incentives, highlights how economic pressures and community practices influence waste management behaviors. Collectors purchase plastics at SLe 2 per kilogram and resell them for SLe 3, with the materials transported to Guinea for recycling into products like slippers. This practice, while economically driven, also reflects a community norm of resourcefulness in waste management.

The study identified significant structural barriers that limit individuals’ ability to engage in proper waste management. 68.8% of respondents lacked access to formal waste services, and only 11.4% benefited from regular waste collection services. Financial constraints were a major barrier, with 83.8% of respondents citing affordability as a challenge, despite 84.6% finding the cost of waste collection affordable (typically 1 - 10 SLe per 50 kg bag). Inadequate infrastructure (66.4%) and lack of awareness (83.2%) further hindered access to reliable waste management options.

These barriers led to widespread improper disposal methods, including open dumping on streets (62.9%), in water bodies (31.9%), and burning (17.9%). Uncollected waste often accumulated in open areas such as roadsides, gullies, and markets, causing blocked drains, air pollution, and increased vector-borne diseases like malaria. Coastal residents frequently dumped waste into the sea, while burning was common in poorer neighborhoods, exacerbating pollution and health risks.

Proximity to dumpsites also posed challenges, with 19.5% of respondents living near waste disposal areas, exposing them to heightened environmental and health risks. Despite these challenges, 93.1% of respondents were willing to participate in community cleanup efforts, indicating a strong desire to improve waste management practices if structural barriers were addressed.

The community recognized several environmental impacts of improper waste disposal, including bad odors (11.7%), flooding (24.6%), harm to biodiversity (7%), gutter blockages (7%), health hazards (20.7%), and vector-borne diseases (24.6%). These findings underscore the urgent need for improved waste management systems.

Proposed solutions included providing bins and dumping sites (35.1%), enforcing waste management laws (26.7%), and promoting community sensitization (11.1%). Respondents also emphasized the need for infrastructure improvements, such as the construction of toilets and wash facilities, the reintroduction of street waste bins, and the establishment of transfer stations for waste sorting. Innovative ideas, such as producing coal from fecal sludge for sustainable energy, were also discussed (See Table 2 ).

While 98.2% of respondents recognized the importance of proper waste management, only a small fraction actively practiced segregation (21.3%) or recycling (17.4%). This gap highlights the influence of external barriers on behavior despite positive attitudes. The community’s motivation for health and cleanliness aligns with broader goals of sustainable urban development and environmental health.

The strong belief in communal responsibility (93.1%) reflects positive social norms, but the persistence of open dumping (62.9%) and burning (17.9%) indicates that these practices remain socially accepted, reinforcing poor waste management behaviors. This underscores the need for community-driven initiatives to reshape social norms and promote better practices.

Structural barriers such as limited access to formal waste services (68.8%), financial constraints (83.8%), and inadequate infrastructure (66.4%) significantly reduce individuals’ ability to engage in proper waste management. These challenges, coupled with irregular waste collection and proximity to dumpsites (19.5%), exacerbate environmental and health risks, including flooding, vector-borne diseases, and air pollution.

The data also underscores significant gender and socioeconomic disparities, particularly in education, employment, and income, which further influence waste management practices. Women, who are disproportionately affected by financial constraints and larger household sizes, face additional barriers to adopting proper waste management practices. Despite these challenges, there is a strong communal sense of responsibility, with 93.1% of respondents willing to participate in cleanup efforts, provided there is better government support and infrastructure.

Strategically, addressing these issues requires a multi-faceted approach that targets all three dimensions of TPB: strengthening positive attitudes through continued education and awareness campaigns, reshaping subjective norms by promoting community-led waste management initiatives and fostering a culture of responsibility, and increasing perceived behavioural control by improving infrastructure, expanding access to affordable waste management services, and addressing financial barriers. By integrating these strategies, policymakers and stakeholders can create an enabling environment for behavioral change, fostering long-term improvements in waste management practices and enhancing the quality of life in WAR.

The findings of this study offer a detailed socio-demographic profile, highlighting gender, age, education, and employment patterns in Western Area Rural (WAR), Sierra Leone. Women represented the majority of respondents (67%), reflecting common gendered participation in community activities. Educational attainment was predominantly at the secondary level (50.2%), but with notable gender disparities—16.8% of women lacked formal education compared to 4.2% of men. These gaps impact awareness and practices related to waste management, consistent with studies linking education to better environmental health outcomes [18] . Most respondents (55.3%) were aged 25 - 45 years, aligning with trends in Sierra Leone and Nigeria, where this economically active age group dominates [19] [20] . The findings underscore persistent gender inequalities in education, driven by socio-economic and cultural barriers, as observed in similar studies across Africa [21] .

The study’s findings align with the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), demonstrating that while attitudes toward proper waste management are largely positive, actual practice is constrained by social and structural barriers. Subjective norms reinforce informal disposal methods, as waste burning and open dumping remain widely accepted within communities. Furthermore, limited access to formal waste management services and financial barriers reduce perceived behavioural control, limiting the ability of individuals to adopt better practices despite their awareness. These findings suggest that effective waste management interventions in WAR must go beyond awareness campaigns and address social norms and systemic barriers to create an enabling environment for behavioural change.

The study highlights significant environmental impacts from improper waste disposal, with flooding, health hazards, and vector-borne diseases identified as major concerns. Despite these challenges, 93.1% of respondents were willings to participate in cleanup efforts, and 86.8% acknowledged income levels as a significant factor influencing waste management practices. Entrepreneurship (33.6%), particularly among women (24.6%), dominates occupations, reflecting limited formal employment opportunities. Widespread financial constraints are evident, with nearly half of respondents earning below SLe 600 monthly, of which a greater proportion are women (11.7%), echoing Sierra Leone’s national waste management strategy, where economic barriers hinder access to proper waste services. This mirrors findings in sub-Saharan Africa, where large household sizes (68.5% with over five members) and extended family structures are common [22] [23] .

Awareness of proper waste management is high (98.2%), yet practical knowledge remains low, with only 22.2% aware of segregation and 23.7% of recycling, and even fewer actively practicing them. This gap is consistent with Sierra Leone’s Integrated National Waste Management Strategy and similar findings in Ethiopia, where financial, infrastructural, and cultural barriers hinder effective practices [24] [25] . Waste management services receive mixed feedback. While some are satisfied, a significant proportion express dissatisfaction due to cost, unreliable providers, and irregular services. Only 26.4% find waste collection affordable. The reliance on open dumping (62.9%) and burning (17.9%), particularly near dumpsites (19.5%), highlights substantial environmental and health risks, including flooding and disease outbreaks. These patterns mirror trends in rural African communities, where formal services are limited [26] [27] .

Improved waste management infrastructure, increased education, and community engagement are critical to addressing these issues. Women, who face significant barriers such as financial and infrastructural constraints, bear a disproportionate burden of waste management responsibilities. Bridging the gap between awareness and effective practice requires targeted interventions, emphasizing gender-inclusive approaches, better access to affordable services, and stricter enforcement of waste policies. These measures align with the TPB framework, which emphasizes the need to address attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control to foster sustainable behavioral change.

Overall, the study underscores the need for integrated solutions combining community participation, infrastructural improvements, and sustainable waste management practices to mitigate risks and enhance urban environmental health. By addressing the systemic barriers identified in this study, policymakers and stakeholders can create an enabling environment for long-term improvements in waste management practices in WAR.