Olson and Speidel [1] determined the “EarlyQuaternaryandolderalluvialdepositsrevealthetectonicandsealeveladjustments,foldandfaultlines,subsidenceandupliftsthatcharacterizetheevolvingMekongRiver [2]. About40millionyearsago,itsprecursordrainedintotheseanearwheretheRedRivernowflowsjustsouthofHanoi,Vietnam.Overtime,earthquakesandvolcanicactivityoftheHimalayasalteredthemountaindrainagesouthwardviasteepgorgesthatappearedabout13millionyearsagoandby8millionyearsagoformedthepresentcoursesofthreerivers:theMekong,YangtzeandYellowriverswhichruninparallelsutures [3][4].BelowthisareawasawideinlandseaduringtheUpperMesozoic.ItislikelythattheMekongRiveratthattimefloweddirectlysouthandtothewestoftheKoratUpland,joiningwhathasbecometheChaoPhrayaRiverinThailand [4]. ThereisevidencethatsubsidenceintheTonleSapbasinofCambodia,perhapsduringthelast12,000years,drewtheMekongRivereastwardandawayfromitsformerChaoPhrayaconnectionandtheTonleSapbasin.Themodern-dayrivercarriesalargesupplyoffluvialtransportedfinesedimentsandsandsthatoriginatedintheTibetanandHimalayanmountainousregionthathavebeenweatheredovertimebyglaciation,precipitation,andevapotranspiration [2].”

“TheMekongRiverchannelhasseveraldistincthydromorphologicalreachesasitflowssouth.Insomeplaces,thechannelisstraight;butinotherlocations,itbecomessinuouswithhighradiusbendsasitfollowsbedrockcarvedfaultlinesandtectoniclineaments [2].Asthebedrockwalledsinglechannelflowsintoalluviallowlands,thechannelmeanderswithlowradiusbends.Whenthesinglealluvialchannelathighflowstakesashortcutacrosstheneckofabend,theriverbecomesbraidedanddividedcreatingislandsandmultiplechannelswithwaterlevelsthatvarywiththeseason.FromVientianetotheMunRiverconfluence,naturalleveescomposedofsiltandclayabout8-10mhighlinebothriverbanks,evidenceofhistoricalovertopping.However,toppingoftheseleveesisnotcommontoday [2].”

“Manywetlandsbeyondtheleveesareartificiallydrainedforricepaddies,corn,vegetables,andothercrops.Wheretheriverbanksarenotsteep,theyarecultivatedforfloodrecessionagriculture,thatis,plantedaccordingtotheriverlevelasittransitionsfromwettodryseason.Theriverbedinthisreachisfinesandwithoccasionaloutcropsoffluvialpebblebedswithabout30-50cmoforganicrichorblackinorganicsilts [2]. CretaceousvolcanicsoccurredthroughoutsouthernLaoanderuptionsofbasaltsintheMioceneandQuaternarywerewidespread.Themodern-dayMekongRivernearthetownofMuangKhongislocallycontrolledbybasaltoutcropsandfaultpatternsthatgiverisetothespectacularSiphandone (4000islands) andKhoneFallsontheLao-Cambodiaborder [2]. Theriverinthisreachhasbedrock-anastomosedchannelsoverlainbyalluvialdeposits.Thetermanastomosedmeanstheriverflowsareseparatedbymanylargeislandsabout5-10mabovethelowwatermarkthatsustainmaturevegetationandarestable [5]ormaymigrateslowlyfrombankerosion” [1].

Olson [6] found “InLaos,theUnitedStates (US) militaryoperationagainsttheHoChiMinhTrail,anetworkoffootandbicyclepaths,waterways (Figure 1),andtruckroutes (Figure 2) alongtheLaos,CambodiaandVietnamborderslinkingNorthandSouthVietnambeganin1959.Bythe1960s,asthewarescalated,trailtrafficwasinterdictedfrequentlybyCIAandUSAirForceusingtacticalherbicidesprayingtodefoliatedensevegetationandbombingtodisruptsuppliesandNorthVietnamesetroopsdispersedalongthe16,000-kilometertrail.Unexplodedordinance,includingclustermunitions,fromU.S.bombingcontinueinrecentyearstodetonate,kill,maim,andinjureLaotiansandrenderagriculturallandstoohazardoustocultivate.”

“EightymillionbombsfailedtodetonateandremainscatteredthroughoutLaos (Figure 3) aftertheSecondIndochinaWar.UnexplodedordnanceinLaos (Figure 4) haveinjuredorkilledover20,000Laotians.Currently50to100peoplearekilledormaimedannually [7][8].Itisestimatedthattheunexplodedordnancethatremainburiedwillnotberemovedentirelywithinthenextcentury [9][10].Unexplodedordnance,includingclustermunitionsfromU.S.bombing,continuetodetonate,injure,andkillLaotiansandhasidledagriculturallandsthataretoodangeroustocultivate.”

“DuringtheSecondIndochinaWar,theUnitedStatesAirForceusedclusterbombsinairstrikes (Figure 5) againsttargetsinCambodia,Vietnam,andLaos [11]. Between1964and1973,hundredsofmillionsofclusterbomblets (Figure 5) weredroppedonLaos,particularlyonXiengKhouangprovince (Figure 6) [12]. Sincethewarofficiallyendedordnancehaskilledover42,000people [10][13].Asof2009,about7000peoplehavebeenkilledorinjuredbyexplosivesleftinVietnam’sQuangTriprovince [14]fromtheVietnamWar” [6].

Figure 1.Stream crossing used during the 2^nd Indochina war in Laos. Published with copyright permission of the editor of Open Journal of Soil Sciences.

Figure 2. Ho Chi Ming trail in Cambodia. Published with copyright permission of the editor of Open Journal of Soil Sciences.

Figure 3.Bombardment and tactical herbicide missions in Laos. The red areas were bombed and the green areas were sprayed with herbicides. Photo credit: Hatfield consulting. Published with copyright permission of the editor of Open Journal of Soil Sciences.

Figure 4.Ordinance removal by the United States in Laos. Photo credit: United States Army.

Figure 5.B-52s bomber dropping bombs. Photo credit: United States air force.

Figure 6.The named and located Laos provinces. Published with copyright permission of the editor of Open Journal of Soil Sciences.

Olson [6] found “UnexplodedordnanceincludingclusterbombletsleftbehindafterairstrikesinLaos,includingthePlainofJars (Figure 7) and (Figure 8),isaveryseriousproblem.Thesebombletsweredesignedasweaponstoexplodeovertimewithsomedetonatingimmediatelyandotherssequentiallylater.Thesurvivingbombletscanexplodewhenhandled,makingthemapotentialthreattomilitarypersonnelandcivilians.Ineffect,theseUXOsfunctionlikelandmines.InVietnam,peoplearestillbeingkilledormaimedasaresultordnanceleftbytheVietnameseandUSmilitaryforcesaftertheVietnamWar.HundredsofpeopleareinjuredorkilledyearlybyunexplodedordnanceleftfromtheSecondIndochinaWar [12]. Inthe1960sand1970s,260millionclustersubmunitionsweredroppedonLaos.Onethirdofthesebomblets [13]failedtodetonateandcontinuetoposeadanger [15].”

Figure 7.Ho Chi Minh Trail in southern Laos. Map by Cruz Dragosavac.

Figure 8.Plain of Jars. Photo credit: cdn.tourradar.com.

Olson [6] noted “Clusterbombsaredesignedtospreadsmallermunitionsoverawidearea [14].Theyareknownasbombletsorsubmunitions.Clusterbombscanbelaunchedfromtheseaorgroundordroppedfromtheairreleasingoverawideareahundredsofbomblets.TheywerepreviouslyusedinWorldWarIIforthepurposeofdestroyingcombatantsormultipledispersedmilitarytargets.”

“Whenaclusterbombisdetonated,anyoneintheareacanbeseriouslyhurtorkilled.Manyofthebombletsfailtoexplodeimmediatelyandannuallycankillorinjurepeople [15].Asignificantnumberofbombletsdonotdetonateonimpact.Thesubmunitionfailure (dud) rate,accordingtotheInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross,variesfrom10%to40%.”

“UseoftheseweaponsduringtheSecondIndochinaWar (Figure 9),resultedinthousands,andsometimesmillions,ofhighlyunstableandunexplodedsubmunitions [15].Clustermunitions,poseapotentialdangertocivilianslivinginareas (Figure 10) whereclusterbombswereused.Theclustermunitionsthatremaininthelandscapearesmall,colorfulandhaveunusualshapes.Unexplodedbombletsappeartochildrentobetoys (Figure 11) andcuriouschildrenoftenpickthemupandarekilledormaimed” [6].

Figure 9.Cluster munitions used in Laos. Photo credit: REUTERS.

Figure 10.Hill tribe huts. Photo credit: Neil Mishalo.

Figure 11. Bomblets 2. Photo credit: CBS News.

The editor of the 2022 Cluster Munition Monitor [15], Loren Persi, said: “Itisaterriblereminderofthedireneedforrapidclearanceofcontaminatedareas,age-appropriateeducationontherisksofunexplodedbomblets,andgreaterdedicatedsupporttothevictimsandtheirfamilies.Childrenweretheprimaryvictimsofclusterbombs.” In 2021, The Landmine and Cluster Munitions Monitor, a group that does research on behalf of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines-Cluster Munitions Coalition Civilians [15], said: “thatof141casualtiesfromclusterbombremnants,97%werecivilians,andtwo-thirdsofthosewerechildren”.

One hundred and twenty-three countries are members of the Convention on Cluster Munitions since 2008 [15], and it was no coincidence that the first meeting of the member states had been held in Laos, one of the countries most affected by the use of cluster munitions. This 2010 international treaty bans the production, stockpiling, transfer of cluster, and use munitions in all circumstances and requires relevant states to implement victim assistance measures.

Because cluster bombs (Figure 11) used released many bomblets over wide areas in Cambodia and Laos, they posed risks to civilians during and after attacks. Unexploded bomblets have maimed or killed Laos and Cambodia civilians and other unintended targets more than 50 years after the war ended. The cluster munitions have been costly to locate and remove [15]. The failure (dud) rate of cluster bomblets was approximately 40 percent during the Second Indochina War.

During the Vietnam Era a wide variety of bomblets were developed as cluster munitions. The variants (both the bomblets and the cluster bombs) which were used most often included: 1) a sub-variety of CBU munitions (CBU-14, CBU-25, CBU-58 and CBU-100/Mk-20 as the most often types of the cluster bombs dropped during the Indochina war); 2) a sub-variety of bomblets/submunitions divided into the spin-armed “family” (like BLU-26 as most wide spreading type—this ball-shaped bomblet is illustrated by two photos in the article [16], so I would add the type mentioned in the figure’s capture) and the fin-stabilized “family” (like BLU-3b or BLU-24 as its examples, with the BLU-3b occasionally known as a “pineapple bomblet” in reference to its appearance with its stabilizing drag vanes deployed) [16]. Some upon impact with the ground would send out trip wires and act as a mine exploding when stepped on and others were fused to penetrate vehicle armor. The majority were anti-personnel. Cluster bombs consist of a hollow shell canister (Figure 12) and contain up to 2000 submunitions or bomblets. The bomblets themselves may be fitted with small parachute streamers or retarders to slow their descent. This feature gave the aircraft time to leave the blast area [14][17]. Anti-personnel cluster munitions use explosive fragmentation to destroy unarmored targets or kill troops. During the Second Indochina War many thousands of tons of bomblets were dropped on Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia [18].

Figure 12. Shell of bomb with bomblets. Photo credit: Brett S. Morris.

Cluster bombs leave behind a wide area with many unexploded bomblets and pose a risk to civilians. The unexploded submunitions can remain live for decades after the end of a conflict. For example, cluster bombing of Laos (Figure 11) by the United States stopped in 1973; however, unexploded ordnance and cluster munitions continue to annually cause between 50 and 100 Laotian civilian casualties [10]-[13].

Olson [6] noted “TheUSAirForcedroppedbombs,equatingto2milliontonsofordnanceduring580,344bombingmissionsoverLaos.ManytargetswererepeatedlystruckaspartofeffortstoisolateNorthVietnameseCommunistforcesinthesouthandnorth [19].Anti-personnelclusterbombswerethemostfrequentlydroppedmunitions.TenLaotianprovinces (Figure 6) weredescribedas"severelycontaminated"byunexplodedbombs.Mine-clearingagenciesestimatethatabout75,000,000unexplodedbombsandabout288,000,000clustermunitionswereleftacrossLaosafterthewar.Clusterbombsscatterbombletsacrossawideareaandoftenfailtoexplodeonimpact [19].Theyposeasignificantthreattociviliansbecauseofboththeirdeadlylegacyandimpactatthetimeofuse.Launched,fromtheairorground,clustermunitionsconsistedofshellsthatopenanddispersedbombletsoverawidearea.Manyexplosivebomblets,failedtodetonateasdesigned,becominglandminesthatindiscriminatelymaimandkill.”

“Longafteraconflictends,theunexplodedordnanceposesadangertociviliansandaredifficulttolocateandremove.Childrenareattractedtothetoy-likeappearanceofthebombletsandareatrisk.TheConventiononClusterMunitions [20][21]bannedthestockpiling,transfer,anduseofvirtuallyallexistingclustermunitionsandrequiredclean-upofunexplodedbombs.Theclustermunitionsbanwasadoptedby108countries;however,itwasnotadoptedbytheUS.Between1995and2013,theUnitedStatesspentasmuchonclean-upeffortsinLaosasitspentinthreedaysofbombingduringtheSecondIndochinaWar.LaosislikelytoaskforanextensiontoitscommitmenttofindanddestroyUXO.Thenumberofcasualtiesfromair-droppedexplosivedevices,mostlyclusterbombs,inLaos,since1964,isestimatedbytheLandmineandClusteringMunitionsMonitor [21],tobeapproximately50,000Laotians.Oftheseabout21,000wereinjuredand29,000mostlycivilianpeoplewerekilled.”

“ThethreatposedbyUXOstoppedvillagersfromfarmingandidledvasttractsofagriculturallanduntiltheyhadbeenclearedofordnance [21].PresidentObama’s2016announcementwaswelcomedbyUXOaidagenciesworkingtoaddresstheprobleminLaos.TheseagenciesincludetheMinesAdvisoryGroup,HaloTrust,UXOLaos,HandicapInternational,andNorwegianPeople’sAid (NPA).SimonRea,theMinesAdvisoryGroupcountrydirector,toldtheBBC"Beforethepresident’sannouncementIfearedthattheUXOoperationinLaoswouldtakehundredsofyears” [20][21].AfterthePresidentObama’sVientianeannouncementDirectorReadsaid"NowIamoptimisticthiscanbereducedtodecades” [6].

Likewise, Halo Trust CEO James Cowan said “ThePresident’sannouncementwillhaveaprofoundeffectontheLaotians.Thepresident’sannouncementisextremelygoodnewsforusandforpoorfamiliesinruralareaswholivesarestillblightedbyUXO” [20][21]. James Cowan said “Itwillhelpthemliveandfarmtheirlandinsafety,aswellascreatingopportunitiesfordevelopmentandinfrastructure.Explosiveremnantsofwarhaveblightedtheirlivesforfartoolong.ItisamomentousstepinLaos’sjourneytowardsfreedomfromthedeadlydebrisofwar.”

Lucy Pinches, NPA Senior Advocacy and Research Advisor, told the BBC “Todaymorethaneverwearegettingamuchbettergraspofthescaleofthecontamination.Weareusingsurveytriangulationdatatoplacecontaminatedlandintoblocksorboxeswhichcanthenbesystematicallyclearedofclustermunitionremnants” [19].

Using newly available Pentagon bombing records, aid agencies can identify which areas of land, mostly the Ho Chi Minh Trail in the south. The Lao communist party headquarters in the north, was bombed and likely also contain unexploded bombs. NPA Laos Country Director, Jonas Zachrisson, told the BBC that “MorepartnershipsinthelastcoupleofyearsamonginternationalclearanceNGOshasgreatlyhelpedinpushingthisprocessforward.MorepartnershipsinthelastcoupleofyearsamonginternationalclearanceNGOshasgreatlyhelpedinpushingthisprocessforward”. At the same time, he cautions that “muchofthecountryremainsun-surveyedwithlimiteddataregardingtheextent,scopeandnatureoftheproblem”.

During a 2016 visit to Laos, US President Barack Obama (Figure 13) said: “Givenourhistoryhere,IbelievethattheUnitedStateshasamoralobligationtohelpLaosheal.” He referred to America’s secret and devastating bombing of Laos during the Vietnam War in the 1960s and 1970s [19]. From 1996 to 2016, the US spent $100 million on the removal of cluster bombs and unexploded ordnance. President Obama proposed spending $90 million during the following three years [20]. President Obama stated that “Laosasthemostheavilybombednationinhistory.Eightbombsaminuteweredropped,onaverage,duringtheVietnamwarbetween1964and1973—morethantheamountusedduringthewholeofWorldWarII.”

Figure 13.President Obama in 2016 in Laos addressing the unexploded ordnance situation. Photo credit: Hamodia.

The first US president to visit Laos, President Obama, adopted a conciliatory approach. He said, “thattheUSbombingshaddestroyedvillagesandentirevalleys,killingcountlesscivilians”. His approach was welcomed by Laotian President Bounnhang Vorachit who enhanced mutual trust between the two countries after the devastating war. In return, President Vorchit promised “thegovernmentwillstepupitseffortstolocateandreturnUSservicemenmissinginthewar (MIA’s)”. President Obama has made improving relations with Southeast Asian nations a foreign policy priority since Chinese influence has grown in the region. Chinese investment in Communist Laos is important to the economy.

Landmine and Clustering Munition Monitor [21] determined “TheLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic(PDR)isresponsibleforsignificantnumbersofclusterbombvictimsandothersurvivorsofexplosiveremnantsofwar(ERW).TheLaoPDRmadecommitmentstoprovidevictimassistancethroughConventiononConventionalWeaponsProtocolVandvictimassistanceobligationsundertheConventiononCluster.TheLaoPDRratifiedtheConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilities(CRPD)on25September2009”.

PDR’sActionpointsbasedonfindings [21]:

“Intensifyeffortstoimproveaccesstorehabilitationservicesfromremoteandruralareas,includingallocatingresourcestobringbeneficiariesforrehabilitationandensuringthattransportisavailable.Holdregulardisabilitysectorcoordinationmeetingsandlinkvictimassistancecoordinationwiththedevelopmentofdisabilitystrategies.Improvestatesupportforpsychologicalandsocialassistance,includingpeer-to-peercounselingandsurvivor-driveneconomicactivities.Coordinatetherapidimplementationofrecentlyadoptedlegislationaswellasexistingpoliciesandplanningthatcouldhastendevelopmentsintheavailabilityandaccessibilityofservices”.

Landmine and Clustering Munition Monitor [22] noted “In2015,atotalof42casualtiesfromunexplodedbombletsandERWwasreportedbytheNationalRegulatoryAuthority(NRA)forUnexplodedOrdnance/MineActionSectorintheLaoPDR [23]. Ofthecasualties39weremaleand19werechildren.Bytheendof2015,TheNRAhadreportedatleast50,612mine/ERWincluding21,082injuredand29,530peoplekilledsince1964 [24].Ofthe21,082injured,only583receivedaprothesis.Thisisahugeshortfall.From2008to2013,LaoPDRreported702victims,ofwhich41%werechildren [25].Clusterbombletcaused7628casualtiesintheperiod1964-2014 [26].In2012,LaoPDRestimatedthereweresome15,000mine/ERWsurvivorsstillliving,includingapproximately2,500survivorsofunexplodedbomblets [27].”

“Mine/ERWsurvivors [21]oftencomefromethnicminoritiesinthepoorerremoteareasofLaosPDR.Themainbarriertoaccessinghealthcarehasbeenfinancialconstraints.Thehealthcaresystemhasremainedunder-funded,underdevelopedandhealthworkershaveinadequatetrainingintreatingthesekindsofinjuries [28]. Theseshortcomingdirectlycontributedtoshortfallsinthequalityofhealthsystemservices” [21].

The Lao PDR [28] reported in 2014 that it still has: “alongwaytogotoprovidesupporttosurvivorsandtheirfamilies.Beyondmeetingtheirimmediateemergencymedicalneeds,veryfewsurvivorsreceivedadequatephysical,psychological,oreconomicsupport”.

Lao PDR reported “thattherewerelimitedresourcesavailableandthatfewdonorsmadevictimassistanceapriority” [29]. As a result, the Lao PDR could not pursue its Dubrovnik Action Plan for the time period through 2020 [30]. The Lao PDR also noted that it “hasalongwaytogotofullyachievethevictimassistancegoalswithinthebroaderdisabilityanddevelopmentframeworks” [31].

An NRA victim assistance strategic plan was adopted in February 2014. The strategic plan addresses seven sections of victim assistance implementation: “datacollection;medicalcare;physicalrehabilitation;psychologicalsupportandsocialinclusion;economicrehabilitationandeducation;legislationandpolicy;andcoordination” [32].

In support the National Committee for Disabled and Elderly People (NCDE) and the victim assistance strategy the NRA [33] authorized to:

“Developasector-widestrategyforpersonswithdisabilities,includingERWsurvivors.CooperatewiththeMinistryofLaborandSocialWelfaretoensureadequatevocationalandothertrainingisprovided;andCooperatewiththeMinistryofHealthtoensurethatthephysicalandpsychologicalneedsofclustermunitionvictimsandothersurvivorsaremoreadequatelymet”.

In cooperation with COPE, the Ministry of Health provides orthotic and prosthetic services in the Lao PDR under the Centre for Medical Rehabilitation and associated physical rehabilitation centers (Figure 14) [21]. Clients are reimbursed for travel costs and a small living allowance during their rehabilitation stay [34].

Figure 14.Artificial limbs for victims of unexploded ordnance and cluster munitions. Photo credit: North Country Public Radio.

In 2015, World Education and QLA provided vocational training and economic support specifically for survivors [21][35][36]. Survivors also received education scholarships through World Education. Laos Humanity and Inclusion (HI) initiated a project to support persons with disabilities, including survivors and their family members, with livelihood and income-generating activities [21].

United States, Russia, and Ukraine have not learned these historic lessons since they are not member states of the Convention on Cluster Munitions [16]. United States has been involved in remedial action at sites of historical bombing but not because of being a member state of the Convention on Cluster Munitions. Not being a member usually means the country considers some obligation of the Convention excessively limiting and reserves the legal opportunity of using such munitions as effective weapons. The United States has applied cluster bombs off its territory exporting the postponed danger to areas outside its jurisdiction.

Human Rights Watch (HRW) and international watchdog has accused the Ukrainian Army of violation “the laws of War” through its use of cluster munitions in separatist-held areas of eastern Ukraine [37]. HRW group warned in its report that the use of cluster munitions “mayamounttowarcrimes”. A university building’s wooden roof in Donetsk caught fire after Ukrainian shelling, according to an emergency official in the Russia-controlled city in eastern Ukraine [38]. Donetsk Mayor Alexei Kulemzin reported on Telegram that the University of Economics and Trad’s first building was ablaze due to the recent attack. The emergency minister for Donetsk People’s Republic (DPR), Alexei Kostrubitsky alleged that the shelling involved the use of cluster munitions, causing the extensive blaze. DPR acting head Denis Pushilin said 169 munitions have been launched including rocket and canon artillery fire with NATO-supplied munitions. According to the New York Times, there were “clear signs that cluster munitions had been fired from the direction of Ukrainian army-held territory, where misfired artillery rockets still containing cluster bomblets were found by villagers in farm fields.

The use of cluster munitions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine has been recorded by a number of eyewitnesses and journalists, as well as representatives of the UN, humanitarian and public organizations [34][39]. In particular, the head of the UN Human Rights Council, Michelle Bachelet, reported on March 30, 2022 at least 24 cases since the beginning of the invasion [40]. As of July 1, hundreds of attacks by Russian forces with cluster munitions have already been recorded cities of Dnipro, Donetsk, Zaporizhzhia, Kyiv, Luhansk, Mykolaiv, Odesa, Sumy, Kharkiv (Figures 15-18 and Figure 19) [41]-[43]. A total of 215 civilians are known to have been killed in these shellings and 474 injured, many of which may go unreported [44]. Both Russia and Ukraine have used cluster munitions during the conflict, however, Russian use has been extensive while Ukrainian use has been more limited [44].

Neither Russia nor Ukraine are signatories of the 2008 Convention which would have limited the use of cluster munitions. The use of such weapons against civilians violates the principles of humanitarian law and therefore constitutes a war crime [45][46]. Reports of Russian attacks have prompted the International Criminal Court to launch an investigation into the commission of war crimes in Ukrainian territory [47][48].

Mitigation efforts including the United States removal of unexploded ordnance and cluster munitions were documented as were worldwide humanitarian relief efforts to help the Laotians maimed by unexploded ordnance and cluster munitions. However, the world, including Russia and Ukraine, apparently did not learn a historical lesson from our 2^nd Indochina War experience in Laos and Cambodia. News reports suggest cluster bombs have been introduced into the Russia-Ukraine Conflict. If so, the people living along the Russia-Ukraine border will be paying the consequences for the next century.

Figure 15.Unexploded cluster shell in Kharkiv region, 2022. Photo credit: Wikipedia.

Figure 16.Un exploded cluster munition submunitions in Kharkiv region, 2022. Photo credit: Wikipedia.

Figure 17.An employee of State Emergency Service of Ukraine near a fragment of a Russian rocket in Kharkiv region, 2022. Photo credit: Wikipedia.

Figure 18.Cluster munitions collected by state Emergency Services of Ukraine in Kharkiv region, 2022. Photo credit: Wikipedia.

Figure 19.Hundreds of cluster bombs and munitions displayed by state Emergency Services of Ukraine in a Kharkiv region field. Photo credit: Encyclopedia of Britannica.