Even though the UN declared access to clean water to be a fundamental human right in 2010, billions of people worldwide still lack access to it. Mismanagement, conflict, and climate change exacerbate water scarcity in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region [1] . Due to increased susceptibility to its impacts, climate change has severely impacted the state of the world, particularly in underprivileged areas [2] . Additionally, by making poverty and economic shocks worse, it increases the likelihood of war [3] . Water supplies have been under more stress recently as a result of population growth, economic development, and climate change [4] . Climate change has caused periodic droughts and inconsistent rainfall in Syria, which has had a major negative impact on human life and the economy and aided in the start of the Syrian crisis [5] [6] .

The majority of Syrians had consistent access to potable water prior to 2011. Water infrastructure has been extensively destroyed by the conflict, resulting in a 40% decrease in access over the last ten years [1] . One important obstacle is the high cost of water [7] . Food security has been worse due to recent extreme droughts and low water levels that have impacted energy production and agriculture [8] . Funding reductions, well depletion, and a lack of resources all limit humanitarian activities [9] [10] . Since more than half of northern Syria is dependent on tainted water, waterborne illnesses and a cholera outbreak became pressing concerns in 2022 [11] .

Access to potable water in Northwest Syria is not only constrained by infrastructural damage but is also influenced by political dynamics and governance issues. Local authorities often lack the capacity to manage water resources effectively due to ongoing conflict and fragmentation of governance structures [12] . This disjointed governance has led to a reliance on informal water markets and private water vendors, which frequently deliver untreated water at exorbitant prices [13] . The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) highlights that many communities are forced to prioritize immediate access to water over safety and quality, contributing to public health crises, including increased cases of acute watery diarrhea and cholera [13] . Furthermore, the politicization of water resources complicates humanitarian interventions, as factions may manipulate water supply as a tool of control, hindering equitable access to safe drinking water [14] .

The intersection of climate change, armed conflict, and water scarcity has profound implications for the future of water security in the region. Researchers have indicated that the ongoing climate crisis is likely to exacerbate existing vulnerabilities in water systems, particularly in areas already affected by displacement and conflict [15] . The World Bank [16] warns that failing to address the intertwined issues of water scarcity and climate change could result in a “water trap,” where communities become increasingly reliant on unsustainable sources of water, thereby perpetuating cycles of poverty and conflict. Addressing these interconnected challenges requires a comprehensive approach that integrates climate resilience, governance reforms, and targeted humanitarian aid to restore and enhance water access for vulnerable populations in Northwest Syria.

The study aims to analyze and document the compounded impact of the Syrian crisis and recent drought conditions on potable water availability and quality in Northwest Syria. It seeks to provide an in-depth understanding of how these factors have affected water infrastructure, resource management, community access to safe drinking water and the urgent needs and potential solutions for sustainable water management in the region.

The findings of this study highlight critical shifts in the potable water landscape in Northwest Syria before and after the crisis that began in 2011. These shifts are essential not only for understanding the current state of water resources but also for informing strategies to address the region’s ongoing challenges. The Syrian water crisis has been exacerbated by conflict, which has severely damaged infrastructure, displaced millions, and created significant governance and resource management obstacles [18] .

The shift in potable water sources, marked by a decline in reliance on public wells and networks post-2011, reflects the multifaceted impact of the crisis on water infrastructure. Increased dependence on private wells and water trucking reveals the adaptive strategies communities have developed amid the deteriorating water supply. The Humanitarian Needs Overview [17] highlights that only 21% of camps in Northwest Syria are connected to water networks, forcing the majority of internally displaced persons (IDPs) to depend on costly and unsustainable water trucking [17] . The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) similarly reports that, despite primary water networks in most villages, frequent electricity and fuel shortages often limit access to adequate water supplies [13] . Prior to 2011, public wells and networks provided more stable access, but post-crisis, private wells and trucking have become essential, similar to trends in other conflict zones where crises disrupt traditional reliance on public sources [19] [20] . This raises concerns about water scarcity and quality, as unregulated sources often fail to meet health standards [21] .

The significant 46% decrease in potable water availability post-2011 aligns with broader narratives of water scarcity in conflict-affected areas [22] . Regional disparities are also evident, with Jisr-Ash-Shugur experiencing a 36% reduction and Harim a 47% decrease, the latter reflecting its high concentration of IDP camps [11] . Humanitarian Needs Overview [17] points to prolonged droughts and reduced rainfall as factors exacerbating access to potable water. This mirrors trends in regions like Yemen and South Sudan, where both conflict and population pressures from displaced persons severely impact water systems [23] [24] . The recent drought has intensified these challenges, as seasonal rainfall variability contributes to water shortages, underscoring the need for securing resources against both climate and conflict risks [25] [26] .

The reduction in per capita water consumption, from 59 to 32 liters, highlights the region’s adaptive responses to water scarcity. This shift parallels similar declines observed in displaced communities in Iraq and Somalia, where high population density exacerbates pressure on local resources [27] [28] . In Northwest Syria, these changes have prompted coping mechanisms such as rationing, reduced hygiene practices, and prioritization of drinking water, all of which reflect the vulnerabilities of communities in fragile settings [11] [29] . Immediate humanitarian actions should focus on addressing this need through enhanced water trucking services and sustainable solutions, such as solar-powered systems, to strengthen infrastructure resilience [13] [30] .

Water quality has also significantly deteriorated, with only 48% of respondents reporting good to high-quality water post-crisis, attributed to unregulated sources like tanker water. The [17] identifies health risks from unsafe water, including increases in acute watery diarrhea (AWD), cholera, and malnutrition [17] [31] . Restoring damaged treatment infrastructure and implementing quality controls is crucial, as seen in other conflict zones where untreated sources lead to health crises [32] [33] . Yemen and Libya have faced similar risks, with outbreaks of cholera due to unregulated sources [34] [35] .

The role of water pumping stations in northwest Syria remains essential for infrastructure. The high percentage of non-functional stations due to war damage and resource scarcity underscores the need for maintenance and rehabilitation. As HNO 2023 [17] reported, two-thirds of Syria’s water treatment plants, half of the pumping stations, and one-third of water towers are currently non-operational. In response to fuel shortages and power grid instability, solar energy use in water pumping stations has become a positive trend. Pre-2011, stations relied on government electricity, but the conflict has driven communities to adopt diesel and solar alternatives [36] [37] . Solar energy offers a resilient and sustainable option for water access, comparable to adaptations in South Sudan’s solar-powered systems during fuel shortages [38] .

Challenges from drought, fuel costs, and deteriorating infrastructure emphasize the urgent need for a comprehensive response to Northwest Syria’s water crisis [39] . Immediate measures, such as increased water trucking, must be paired with sustainable solutions like solar-powered pumps and infrastructure rehabilitation. Effective governance structures are also necessary for sustainable water resource management. Interventions, including solar installations, quality monitoring, and infrastructure restoration, are essential. Similar success has been seen in Kenya’s refugee camps with solar-powered water systems, providing a model for interventions in Syria [40] [41] .

The potable water crisis in Northwest Syria highlights the severe vulnerabilities faced by communities amidst prolonged conflict, resource scarcity, and climate pressures. While communities have shifted from centralized water systems to decentralized sources such as private wells and water trucking, these alternatives have resulted in challenges in water quality, affordability, and access, particularly in overcrowded displacement camps. Droughts, unreliable energy, and political and socioeconomic barriers further complicate the situation, making it difficult to implement solutions.

While solar-powered water systems present a promising solution, their feasibility requires careful consideration of the region’s complex political dynamics, the high costs of implementation, and limited access to resources. Restoring infrastructure, improving water governance, and ensuring consistent funding will be essential to overcoming these obstacles. Collaborative efforts with local authorities, international organizations, and community stakeholders will be crucial to developing tailored solutions that address both immediate needs and long-term resilience. Prioritizing these measures will help ensure that future interventions can create sustainable water systems that can withstand ongoing challenges.

At the end of this research, we would like to thank the CARA organization for its generous financial support. This research was supported by Cara (the Council for At-Risk Academics), United Kingdom. We also would like to thank the Shafak Organization for their support in data collection, and coordination with the stakeholders.